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Questions and Answers
What type of aggression is characterized by an impulsive retaliation to another person's actions?
What type of aggression is characterized by an impulsive retaliation to another person's actions?
Which parenting style involves minimal rules but intense verbal guidance?
Which parenting style involves minimal rules but intense verbal guidance?
What effect might viewing violence on television have on children?
What effect might viewing violence on television have on children?
What is described as the ability to understand the emotions and concerns of others?
What is described as the ability to understand the emotions and concerns of others?
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What type of aggression includes nonphysical acts aimed at harming social connections?
What type of aggression includes nonphysical acts aimed at harming social connections?
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Which consequence is associated with physical punishment in children?
Which consequence is associated with physical punishment in children?
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What developmental aspect is important to consider when disciplining young children?
What developmental aspect is important to consider when disciplining young children?
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Which type of behavior increases from ages 3 to 6 and is characterized by actions that are kind and helpful?
Which type of behavior increases from ages 3 to 6 and is characterized by actions that are kind and helpful?
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Which of the following parenting styles is characterized by high behavioral standards and strict punishment with little communication?
Which of the following parenting styles is characterized by high behavioral standards and strict punishment with little communication?
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How do children raised in permissive parenting environments typically behave?
How do children raised in permissive parenting environments typically behave?
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What is a significant trait of children raised by authoritative parents?
What is a significant trait of children raised by authoritative parents?
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What dimension of parenting involves the degree of affection a parent chooses to express?
What dimension of parenting involves the degree of affection a parent chooses to express?
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Which of the following is a critique of Baumrind's model of parenting styles?
Which of the following is a critique of Baumrind's model of parenting styles?
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Children of which parenting style tend to exhibit guilt and self-blame when things go poorly?
Children of which parenting style tend to exhibit guilt and self-blame when things go poorly?
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What is a common outcome for children raised in neglectful or uninvolved parenting styles?
What is a common outcome for children raised in neglectful or uninvolved parenting styles?
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Which characteristic is least likely to be associated with children raised in authoritative households?
Which characteristic is least likely to be associated with children raised in authoritative households?
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What type of play involves children playing individually without awareness of others around them?
What type of play involves children playing individually without awareness of others around them?
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Which type of play is characterized by children observing others and sharing materials but not engaging mutually?
Which type of play is characterized by children observing others and sharing materials but not engaging mutually?
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Active play, which includes behaviors like wrestling and chasing, is known for mimicking what kind of action?
Active play, which includes behaviors like wrestling and chasing, is known for mimicking what kind of action?
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What type of play involves children pretending to act out roles and narratives they create?
What type of play involves children pretending to act out roles and narratives they create?
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During which type of play do children play alongside each other but do not engage directly?
During which type of play do children play alongside each other but do not engage directly?
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How does rough-and-tumble play primarily affect children’s social understanding?
How does rough-and-tumble play primarily affect children’s social understanding?
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Which factor is most likely to influence the manner of play in different cultures?
Which factor is most likely to influence the manner of play in different cultures?
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What is the primary benefit of children engaging in play with peers according to developmental theories?
What is the primary benefit of children engaging in play with peers according to developmental theories?
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Study Notes
Early Childhood Psychosocial Development
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Emotional Development: The ability to control when and how emotions are expressed is possible due to connections between the limbic system and prefrontal cortex.
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Initiative vs. Guilt: Erikson's third psychosocial crisis, where children undertake new skills and feel guilty when they don't succeed.
Pride in Oneself
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Self-esteem: A person's evaluation of their worth, either in specific aspects (e.g., intelligence, attractiveness) or generally.
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Self-concept: A person's understanding of themselves, incorporating self-esteem, physical appearance, personality, and various traits (e.g., gender, size).
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Protective Optimism: Preschoolers predict they can solve impossible puzzles, remember long lists of words, and control their dreams, which helps them try new things.
Guilt and Shame
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Guilt: Self-blame experienced when doing something wrong.
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Shame: Feeling that others blame, disapprove of, or are disappointed in them.
Motivation
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Intrinsic motivation: A drive to pursue a goal from within the person, such as the need to feel smart or competent.
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Extrinsic motivation: A drive to pursue a goal arising from outside, such as wanting material possessions or another person's esteem.
Culture and Motives
- Cultural goals for emotional regulation: Examples include overcoming fear (United States), modifying anger (Puerto Rico), tempering pride (China), controlling aggression (Japan), and being patient and cooperative (Native American communities).
Seeking Emotional Balance
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Externalizing problems: Expressing powerful feelings through uncontrolled outbursts.
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Internalizing problems: Turning one's emotional distress inward, like feeling excessively guilty, ashamed, or worthless.
Sex Differences in Emotional Regulation
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Neurological and hormonal effects: Boys tend to be more aggressive (externalizing), while girls tend to be more anxious (internalizing).
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Generally, children of both sexes regulate emotions as brains mature and parents nurture them.
Play
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A productive and enjoyable activity for children.
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Archeologists find toys that are thousands of years old.
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Anthropologists report play in every part of the world.
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Play changes with age and culture.
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Increased social play is due to brain maturation.
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Children learn to make and keep friends.
Peers and Parents
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Peers: People of similar age and social status. They provide practice in emotional regulation, empathy, and social understanding.
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Children prefer peers over parents for playing.
The Ecological Context
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Physical setting shapes play.
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Some communities have many toys and close supervision.
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Other communities leave children to play with whatever they find.
Changing Social Circumstances
- Types of play (based on Midred Parten, 1932).
- Solitary play
- Onlooker play
- Parallel play
- Associative play
- Cooperative play
Active Play
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Rough-and-tumble play: Play mimicking aggression (like wrestling, chasing, hitting) but without intent to harm.
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Often involves expressions and gestures indicating pretense, particularly common in young boys.
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Ample space and distant adults increase likelihood.
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Increased social understanding but also higher possibility of injury.
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May positively influence prefrontal cortex development.
Sociodramatic Play
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Pretend play where children act out roles and themes in stories they create.
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Allows exploration and rehearsal of social roles.
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Enables testing of explanation and persuasion skills.
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Provides practice in regulating emotions.
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Helps develop a sense of self-concept in a safe environment.
Parenting Styles
- Baumrind's (1967, 1971) dimensions of parenting styles:
- Expressions of warmth
- Strategies for discipline
- Communication
- Expectations for maturity
Baumrind's Patterns of Parenting
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Authoritarian: High behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication.
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Permissive: High nurturance and communication but little discipline or control.
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Authoritative: Parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible with communication and listen to their children.
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Neglectful/uninvolved: Parents are indifferent toward their children.
Implications of Parenting Style
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Authoritarian: Children become conscientious, obedient, and quiet but not especially happy. They might feel guilty or depressed and rebel as adolescents, possibly leaving home before 20 years of age.
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Permissive: Children are unhappy, lack self-control (especially in social settings), have inadequate emotional regulation, are immature, and often lack friends.
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Authoritative: Children are successful, articulate, happy with themselves, and generous with others. They are well-liked by teachers and peers, particularly in societies valuing individual initiative.
Critique of Baumrind's Model
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Original sample lacked diversity (economically, ethnically, culturally).
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Focused more on attitudes than everyday interactions.
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Some authoritarian parents are loving.
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Some permissive parents guide intensely, but without rules.
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Overlooked child's contribution to the parent-child relationship.
Children, Parents, and Media
- Table of average daily exposure to electronic media (ages 2-4 & 5-7) for different racial/ethnic groups.
The Significance of Content
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Violence on television is often presented as acceptable, increasing children's violent tendencies.
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Racist and gender stereotypes are still a problem in children's programs.
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Educational programs can have positive effects.
Moral Development
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Empathy: Understanding another person's emotions, especially when different from one's own.
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Antipathy: Feelings of dislike or hatred toward another person.
Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior
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Prosocial behavior: Helpful and kind actions, increasing from age 3 to 6.
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Antisocial behavior: Deliberately hurtful or destructive actions, declining from age 2.
Types of Aggression
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Instrumental aggression: To get something from another person.
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Reactive aggression: A response to another's harmful actions (intentional or not).
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Relational aggression: Acts aimed at harming social connections.
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Bullying aggression: Repeated physical or verbal attacks, especially on vulnerable victims.
Becoming Boys and Girls
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Age 2: Children understand and apply gender labels consistently.
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Age 4: Children are convinced of gender-appropriate toys (e.g., dolls for girls, trucks for boys).
Sex and Gender
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Sex differences: Biological differences in organs, hormones, and body shape between males and females.
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Gender differences: Societal roles and behaviors prescribed for males and females (initially causing confusion for children).
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Increased awareness of gender differences appears by age 5. This includes recognizing biological sex as permanent, preferring same-sex playmates, and acting in stereotypical gendered ways, from age 2 to 8.
Theories of Gender Differences
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Psychoanalytical theory:
- Phallic stage: Freud's stage where the penis becomes a central focus of concern and pleasure.
- Oedipus complex: The unconscious desire in young boys to replace their father and win their mother's love.
- Superego: In psychoanalytic theory, the judgmental part of the personality that internalizes moral standards.
- Electra complex: The unconscious desire in young girls to replace their mother and win their father's love
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Behaviorism: Gender differences are the product of reinforcement and punishment of "appropriate" and "inappropriate" behaviors.
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Social Learning Theory: Children observe and internalize behaviours of men and women.
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Cognitive theory: Gender schema: A child's cognitive concept or general belief about sex differences based on their observations and experiences.
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Systems Theory: Genes, culture, parents, peers, ideas, and customs interact to influence a child's gender development.
Androgyny
- Androgyny: A balance of traditionally masculine and feminine psychological characteristics within one person.
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Description
Explore the concepts of emotional development, self-esteem, and psychosocial crises in early childhood. This quiz covers key theories by Erikson and examines the roles of guilt and shame in childhood development. Test your knowledge on how children foster initiative and develop self-concept.
