Psychology of Early Childhood Development

Early Childhood Psychosocial Development

• Emotional Development: The ability to control when and how emotions are expressed is possible due to connections between the limbic system and prefrontal cortex.

• Initiative vs. Guilt: Erikson's third psychosocial crisis, where children undertake new skills and feel guilty when they don't succeed.

Pride in Oneself

• Self-esteem: A person's evaluation of their worth, either in specific aspects (e.g., intelligence, attractiveness) or generally.

• Self-concept: A person's understanding of themselves, incorporating self-esteem, physical appearance, personality, and various traits (e.g., gender, size).

• Protective Optimism: Preschoolers predict they can solve impossible puzzles, remember long lists of words, and control their dreams, which helps them try new things.

Guilt and Shame

• Guilt: Self-blame experienced when doing something wrong.

• Shame: Feeling that others blame, disapprove of, or are disappointed in them.

Motivation

• Intrinsic motivation: A drive to pursue a goal from within the person, such as the need to feel smart or competent.

• Extrinsic motivation: A drive to pursue a goal arising from outside, such as wanting material possessions or another person's esteem.

Culture and Motives

• Cultural goals for emotional regulation: Examples include overcoming fear (United States), modifying anger (Puerto Rico), tempering pride (China), controlling aggression (Japan), and being patient and cooperative (Native American communities).

Seeking Emotional Balance

• Externalizing problems: Expressing powerful feelings through uncontrolled outbursts.

• Internalizing problems: Turning one's emotional distress inward, like feeling excessively guilty, ashamed, or worthless.

Sex Differences in Emotional Regulation

• Neurological and hormonal effects: Boys tend to be more aggressive (externalizing), while girls tend to be more anxious (internalizing).

• Generally, children of both sexes regulate emotions as brains mature and parents nurture them.

Play

• A productive and enjoyable activity for children.

• Archeologists find toys that are thousands of years old.

• Anthropologists report play in every part of the world.

• Play changes with age and culture.

• Increased social play is due to brain maturation.

• Children learn to make and keep friends.

Peers and Parents

• Peers: People of similar age and social status. They provide practice in emotional regulation, empathy, and social understanding.

• Children prefer peers over parents for playing.

The Ecological Context

• Physical setting shapes play.

• Some communities have many toys and close supervision.

• Other communities leave children to play with whatever they find.

Changing Social Circumstances

• Types of play (based on Midred Parten, 1932).
  • Solitary play
  • Onlooker play
  • Parallel play
  • Associative play
  • Cooperative play

Active Play

• Rough-and-tumble play: Play mimicking aggression (like wrestling, chasing, hitting) but without intent to harm.

• Often involves expressions and gestures indicating pretense, particularly common in young boys.

• Ample space and distant adults increase likelihood.

• Increased social understanding but also higher possibility of injury.

• May positively influence prefrontal cortex development.

Sociodramatic Play

• Pretend play where children act out roles and themes in stories they create.

• Allows exploration and rehearsal of social roles.

• Enables testing of explanation and persuasion skills.

• Provides practice in regulating emotions.

• Helps develop a sense of self-concept in a safe environment.

Parenting Styles

• Baumrind's (1967, 1971) dimensions of parenting styles:
  • Expressions of warmth
  • Strategies for discipline
  • Communication
  • Expectations for maturity

Baumrind's Patterns of Parenting

• Authoritarian: High behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication.

• Permissive: High nurturance and communication but little discipline or control.

• Authoritative: Parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible with communication and listen to their children.

• Neglectful/uninvolved: Parents are indifferent toward their children.

Implications of Parenting Style

• Authoritarian: Children become conscientious, obedient, and quiet but not especially happy. They might feel guilty or depressed and rebel as adolescents, possibly leaving home before 20 years of age.

• Permissive: Children are unhappy, lack self-control (especially in social settings), have inadequate emotional regulation, are immature, and often lack friends.

• Authoritative: Children are successful, articulate, happy with themselves, and generous with others. They are well-liked by teachers and peers, particularly in societies valuing individual initiative.

Critique of Baumrind's Model

• Original sample lacked diversity (economically, ethnically, culturally).

• Focused more on attitudes than everyday interactions.

• Some authoritarian parents are loving.

• Some permissive parents guide intensely, but without rules.

• Overlooked child's contribution to the parent-child relationship.

Children, Parents, and Media

• Table of average daily exposure to electronic media (ages 2-4 & 5-7) for different racial/ethnic groups.

The Significance of Content

• Violence on television is often presented as acceptable, increasing children's violent tendencies.

• Racist and gender stereotypes are still a problem in children's programs.

• Educational programs can have positive effects.

Moral Development

• Empathy: Understanding another person's emotions, especially when different from one's own.

• Antipathy: Feelings of dislike or hatred toward another person.

Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior

• Prosocial behavior: Helpful and kind actions, increasing from age 3 to 6.

• Antisocial behavior: Deliberately hurtful or destructive actions, declining from age 2.

Types of Aggression

• Instrumental aggression: To get something from another person.

• Reactive aggression: A response to another's harmful actions (intentional or not).

• Relational aggression: Acts aimed at harming social connections.

• Bullying aggression: Repeated physical or verbal attacks, especially on vulnerable victims.

Becoming Boys and Girls

• Age 2: Children understand and apply gender labels consistently.

• Age 4: Children are convinced of gender-appropriate toys (e.g., dolls for girls, trucks for boys).

Sex and Gender

• Sex differences: Biological differences in organs, hormones, and body shape between males and females.

• Gender differences: Societal roles and behaviors prescribed for males and females (initially causing confusion for children).

• Increased awareness of gender differences appears by age 5. This includes recognizing biological sex as permanent, preferring same-sex playmates, and acting in stereotypical gendered ways, from age 2 to 8.

Theories of Gender Differences

• Psychoanalytical theory:

  • Phallic stage: Freud's stage where the penis becomes a central focus of concern and pleasure.
  • Oedipus complex: The unconscious desire in young boys to replace their father and win their mother's love.
  • Superego: In psychoanalytic theory, the judgmental part of the personality that internalizes moral standards.
  • Electra complex: The unconscious desire in young girls to replace their mother and win their father's love

• Behaviorism: Gender differences are the product of reinforcement and punishment of "appropriate" and "inappropriate" behaviors.

• Social Learning Theory: Children observe and internalize behaviours of men and women.

• Cognitive theory: Gender schema: A child's cognitive concept or general belief about sex differences based on their observations and experiences.

• Systems Theory: Genes, culture, parents, peers, ideas, and customs interact to influence a child's gender development.

Androgyny

• Androgyny: A balance of traditionally masculine and feminine psychological characteristics within one person.