tutorial notes 6 - 13

Ways to Observe Behaviour

• Naturalistic observation: Observing behaviour in a natural setting, such as a playground. Example: recording aggressive behaviour in children during unstructured playtime.
• Participant observation: The researcher becomes part of the group they are observing. Example: A psychologist becoming an employee to understand workplace dynamics.
• Field experiments: Manipulating an independent variable (IV) in a natural setting to determine cause and effect. Example: Studying the impact of seating configurations on student engagement.
• Contrived observation: Observing behaviour in a controlled environment. Example: Observing how people react to a specific stimulus in a laboratory setting.
• Observation of physical traces: Examining physical evidence of past behavior. Example: Counting cigarette butts in a public space to estimate the amount of smoking in the area.
• Archival research: Analysing existing data, such as documents or records. Example: Examining historical records to understand trends in crime rates.
• Content analysis: Analysing the content of communication. Example: Analysing newspaper articles to study the portrayal of women in the media.
• Digital traces: Observing online behaviour. Example: Analysing social media posts to understand public opinion on a particular issue.

Sampling Behaviour

• Continuous sampling: Recording all behaviour of interest. Example: Recording every instance of a child's aggressive behaviour on a playground.
• Situation sampling: Observing behaviour in different locations and circumstances. Example: Recording how a child responds to a request in different settings, such as the classroom and the playground.
• Time sampling: Recording behaviour at specific intervals. Example: Observing a child's behaviour every 5 minutes during a play session.
• Instantaneous sampling: Recording behaviour at a specific moment in time. Example: Observing a student's behaviour at the exact moment a bell rings to end class.
• Event sampling: Observing a specific event or behaviour each time it occurs. Example: Observing how a child reacts to each time they are praised by a teacher.
• Individual sampling: Observing only one participant at a time. Example: Observing the behaviour of a dementia patient before, during, and after mealtime.

Quantifying Behaviours

• Frequency method: Counting the number of times a specific behaviour occurs. Example: Counting the number of times a child uses aggressive language on the playground.
• Duration method: Measuring the length of time a specific behaviour occurs. Example: Measuring the length of time a child displays aggressive behaviour on the playground.
• Interval method: Dividing the observation period into intervals and recording whether or not the behaviour occurs in each interval. Example: Observing the playground for five-minute intervals and recording whether aggressive behaviour occurs in each interval.

Developing Self-Report Instruments

• Clear and concise language: Items should be easy to understand and avoid using jargon or complex phrasing.
• Culturally appropriate: Items should be relevant and meaningful to the target culture.
• Ethical considerations: Items should respect participant values and privacy.
• Informed consent: Participants should be fully informed about the study and have the right to withdraw at any time.

Research Ethics

• Why ethics approval is important: To protect the welfare, rights, safety of participants and ensure research is conducted ethically.
• MQ Ethics Committees: MQ has two Human Research Ethics Committees (HRECs) that review research applications, one for Human Sciences and Humanities and one for Medical Sciences.
• HREC vs. Faculty Ethics Subcommittees: HRECs review research applications considered "more than low risk," while Faculty Ethics Subcommittees review applications deemed "no more than low risk."
• Composition of HRECs: HRECs include individuals with relevant experience, expertise, and diverse perspectives.
• Limited disclosure: May be approved under specific circumstances, such as when full disclosure could hinder the research objectives.
• Active concealment/planned deception: May be permitted in certain cases, but only if it minimizes risk to participants and is justified by the research objectives.

Research process

• Finding a research idea: Identifying a topic or phenomenon that is interesting and relevant to the field of study.
• From theory to hypotheses: Translating theoretical ideas into testable predictions.
• Defining & operationalizing variables: Clearly specifying the variables of interest and how they will be measured.
• Identifying participants: Determining the target population and the sampling method to be used.
• Research strategies: Choosing the appropriate approach for the study, such as correlational, experimental, or quasi-experimental.
  • Correlational research strategy: Examining the relationships between two or more variables.
  • Experimental research strategy: Manipulating an independent variable (IV) to determine its effect on a dependent variable (DV).
  • Quasi-experimental research strategy: Comparing conditions defined by a non-manipulated variable.
• Research designs: Choosing the appropriate structure for the study, such as between-subjects, within-subjects, or mixed designs.

Correlational Research Strategy

• Objectives: To examine relationships between variables and to predict one variable from another.
• Strengths: Quicker and more cost-effective than experimental research.
• Limitations: Does not establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Directionality problem: Difficulty in determining which variable causes the other.
• Third-variable problem: The possibility of an unobserved variable influencing both variables being studied.

Experimental Research Strategy

• Objectives: To establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
• Key elements: Manipulation of an IV, measurement of a DV.
• Controls: Random assignment, manipulation check, holding constant, matching.

Quasi-experimental Research Strategy

• Objectives: To compare conditions defined by a non-manipulated variable.
• Limitations: Cannot establish direct cause-and-effect relationships.