Psychology: Critical Thinking and Development

Critical Thinking

• Involves questioning, evaluating, and analyzing information.
• Critical thinking skills help distinguish between reliable and unreliable information.

Nature vs Nurture

• The nature vs nurture debate explores the relative influences of genetics and environmental factors on behavior and development.

Functionalism

• Focuses on the purpose and function of psychological processes.
• Views mental processes as adaptive tools for survival.

Four Levels of Analysis in Psychological Science

• Biological: Examines the physiological underpinnings of behavior.
• Cognitive: Studies the role of mental processes, such as thoughts, perceptions, and memory.
• Social-cultural Explores the influence of social and cultural factors on behavior.
• Individual Considers personal experiences, traits, and motivations.

Stages of Prenatal Development

• Germinal Stage: From conception to two weeks. Zygote implants in the uterine wall.
• Embryonic Stage: Weeks 2 to 8. Formation of major organs and body systems.
• Fetal Stage: Weeks 9 to birth. Continued growth and development of all body systems.

Teratogens

• Environmental agents that can harm a developing fetus. Examples include alcohol, tobacco, and certain medications.
• Teratogens can cause birth defects, developmental delays, and other problems.

Brain Development

• Synaptogenesis: The formation of new synapses (connections between neurons).
• Myelination: The insulation of nerve fibers, increasing the speed and efficiency of neural transmission.
• Synaptic Pruning: The elimination of unused synapses.

Development of the Prefrontal Cortex and Limbic System in Adolescence

• Prefrontal Cortex: Responsible for planning, decision-making, and impulse control. Continues to develop throughout adolescence.
• Limbic System: Involved in emotions and motivation. Develops more rapidly than the prefrontal cortex during adolescence.
• These developmental differences can contribute to risk-taking, emotional volatility, and impulsivity in teenagers.

Puberty

• The period of rapid physical growth and sexual maturation that occurs during adolescence.
• Hormonal changes trigger the development of secondary sex characteristics.

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development (as it relates to adolescence)

• Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence).
• Focuses on developing a sense of self, exploring different roles, and establishing a personal identity.

Effects of Aging on Cognition

• Fluid Intelligence: The ability to reason abstractly, solve problems, and think flexibly. May decline with age.
• Crystallized Intelligence: The accumulation of knowledge and experience. Can continue to increase throughout life.
• Age-related declines in working memory and processing speed.

Nature & Nurture

• Genotype: An individual's genetic makeup.
• Phenotype: Observable characteristics resulting from the genotype and environment.
• Environmental factors such as nutrition, stress, and social experiences influence gene expression.

Mendelian vs. Polygenic Inheritance

• Mendelian inheritance: Traits determined by single genes, with a dominant and recessive allele.
• Polygenic Inheritance: Complex traits affected by multiple genes.

Types of Neurons

• Sensory neurons: Carry information from the sense organs to the brain.
• Motor neurons: Carry signals from the brain to the muscles and glands.
• Interneurons: Connect neurons within the brain and spinal cord.

Neural Structure, Function, and Communication

• Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
• Axon: Transmits signals to other neurons.
• Synaptic transmission: Communication between neurons occurs at synapses.

Serotonin & Dopamine

• Serotonin: Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.
• Dopamine: Associated with pleasure, motivation, and movement.

Cerebral Cortex and Corpus Callosum

• Cerebral Cortex: The outermost layer of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions.
• Corpus Callosum: Connects the two hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between them.

Autonomic Nervous System

• Regulates involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, breathing, and digestion.
• Divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

Plasticity

• The brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experience.
• Synaptic plasticity: Changes in the strength and number of synapses.

What Makes Good Theory? - The Scientific Method

• A good scientific theory is testable, falsifiable, and supported by empirical evidence.
• The scientific method involves a systematic process of observation, experimentation, and analysis.

Three Types of Studies

• Descriptive Studies: Observe and describe behavior.
• Correlational Studies: Examine relationships between variables.
• Experimental Studies: Manipulate variables to test cause-and-effect relationships.

Reliability vs. Validity

• Reliability: Consistency of a measure.
• Validity: A measure's accuracy in reflecting the concept it is intended to measure.

Internal vs. External Validity

• Internal Validity: The extent to which a study can confidently establish a causal relationship.
• External Validity: The degree to which the results of a study can be generalized to other populations and settings.

Correlations

• Correlations describe relationships between variables.
• A positive correlation indicates that the variables increase together.
• A negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other decreases.

Observer Bias

• The tendency for observers to interpret events based on their own expectations or biases.

Random Assignment vs. Random Sampling

• Random assignment: Assigning participants randomly to different experimental conditions to control for confounding variables.
• Random sampling: Selecting participants randomly from a population to ensure that the sample is representative of the population.

Significance Testing

• Statistical procedures used to determine whether the results of a study are likely due to chance or a real effect.

Sensation vs. Perception

• Sensation: The process by which our sensory receptors receive and transmit information from the external world.
• Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.

Perception Pathway (and the Exception to this Pathway)

• Sensory receptors -> Thalamus (sensory relay center) -> Specific area of the brain.
• Exception: Olfactory information is not processed through the thalamus.

Sensory Thresholds

• Absolute Threshold: The minimum amount of stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.
• Difference Threshold: The minimum detectable difference between two stimuli.

Signal Detection Theory

• A model that explains how individuals make decisions about the presence or absence of a stimulus, taking into account both sensory information and the observer's criteria for making a judgment.

Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing

• Bottom-up processing: Perception is driven by sensory information from the environment.
• Top-down processing: Perception is influenced by prior knowledge, expectations, and context.

Visual Pathway

• Retina: Light energy is converted into neural signals.
• Optic Nerve: Transmits signals from the retina to the brain.
• Thalamus: Relay center for visual information.
• Visual Cortex: Processes visual information, including shapes, colors, and motion.

Senses and Their Receptors

• Vision: Light-sensitive receptors in the retina.
• Hearing: Hair cells in the inner ear.
• Touch: Mechanoreceptors in the skin.
• Taste: Taste receptors on the tongue.
• Smell: Olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity.

Fast and Slow Pain Fibers

• Fast fibers: Transmit sharp, localized pain. Myelinated.
• Slow fibers: Transmit dull, aching pain. Unmyelinated.

Chapter 1. The Science of Psychology

• Critical thinking involves analyzing information to form judgments.
• Nature vs. nurture debate focuses on the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) in shaping human behavior and development.
• Functionalism is a school of thought in psychology that emphasizes the purpose of mental processes and behavior in adapting to the environment.
  • Four levels of analysis in psychological science:
    • Biological level explores the physical and chemical processes in the brain and other bodily systems.
    • Cognitive level examines mental processes, such as thinking, memory, and language.
    • Behavioral level focuses on observable actions and responses.
    • Social-cultural level investigates the influence of social and cultural contexts on behavior.

Chapter 9. Human Development

• Prenatal development stages:
  • Germinal stage (first two weeks): rapid cell division and formation of the zygote.
  • Embryonic stage (weeks 3-8): development of major organs and body systems.
  • Fetal stage (weeks 9-40): continued growth and development of organs and systems.
• Teratogens are environmental factors that can harm a developing fetus (alcohol, drugs, certain viruses).
• Brain development involves neurogenesis (creation of new neurons), synaptogenesis (formation of synapses between neurons), and myelination (covering of neurons with myelin).
• The prefrontal cortex is responsible for planning, decision-making, and impulse control. It develops throughout adolescence.
• The limbic system which includes the amygdala and hippocampus, plays a role in emotion and memory. It undergoes significant development during adolescence.
• Puberty is a period of rapid physical growth and sexual maturation triggered by hormonal changes. It typically occurs between ages 8-14 for girls and 9-15 for boys.
• Erikson's theory of psychosocial development emphasizes the social and emotional challenges of adolescence.
  • Identity vs. Role Confusion: Adolescents try to find a sense of self and a place in society.
  • Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young adults explore relationships and develop a sense of belonging.
• Aging can lead to changes in cognition, including declines in memory, executive function, and processing speed.

Chapter 3. Biology & Behavior

• Nature and nurture interact to shape behavior.
• Genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an individual.
• Phenotype refers to the observable characteristics of an individual.
• Environment encompasses the external influences that shape individuals (e.g., family, culture, experiences).
• Epigenetics studies how environmental factors influence gene expression.
• Mendelian inheritance follows dominant and recessive patterns of gene transmission.
• Polygenic inheritance involves the interplay of multiple genes in determining a trait.
• Neurons are specialized cells that transmit information within the nervous system.
• Neural structure: consists of a cell body (soma), dendrites (receive signals), and an axon(transmits signals).
• Communication occurs through synaptic transmission, where neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic neuron to be received by the postsynaptic neuron.
• Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in mood, sleep, and appetite.
• Dopamine is a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, reward, and motivation.
• Cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the brain, is responsible for higher-level functions (thinking, language, memory).
• Corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain allowing communication between them.
• Autonomic nervous system regulates bodily functions (heart rate, digestion, breathing). It's divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
• Plasticity refers to the brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experience.

Chapter 2. Research Methodology

• Good theories are falsifiable, parsimonious (simple), and supported by evidence.
• Scientific method involves a systematic process for gathering and interpreting data.
• Steps: Observation, Hypothesis, Prediction, Experiment, Analysis, Conclusion.
• Three types of studies:
  • Descriptive research (observing and recording behavior)
  • Correlational research (examining relationships between variables)
  • Experimental research (manipulating variables to determine cause and effect).
• Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure, while validity refers to its accuracy.
• Internal validity refers to the extent to which a study's findings are due to the manipulated variable.
• External validity refers to the generalizability of the findings to other populations and settings.
• Correlations indicate the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.
• Observer bias occurs when researchers' expectations influence their observations.
• Assignment is the process of placing participants into groups in an experiment.
• Random assignment ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group in order to minimize bias.
• ** Random sampling** is the process of selecting participants from a population in order to generalize results.
• Significance testing determines if a study's results are statistically significant or likely due to chance.

Chapter 5. Sensation & Perception

• Sensation involves the detection of stimuli by sensory organs.
• Perception involves the interpretation and organization of sensory information.
• Perception pathway:
  • Sensory receptors detect stimuli and convert them into neural signals.
  • Sensory nerves transmit the signals to the brain.
  • Brain interprets the signals, resulting in perception.
• Exception: Olfactory sense (smell) bypasses the thalamus and goes directly to the olfactory cortex.
• Sensory thresholds:
  • Absolute threshold refers to the minimum amount of stimulation needed for detection.
  • Difference threshold (just noticeable difference): the minimum difference between two stimuli needed to be detected.
• Signal detection theory: emphasizes the role of decision-making and the context of the sensory experience in detecting stimuli.
• Bottom-up processing: perception based on sensory information alone.
• Top-down processing: influences of prior knowledge and expectations on perception.
• Visual pathway:
  • Light enters the eye through the pupil and lens.
  • Photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) in the retina convert light into neural signals.
  • Neural signals travel through the optic nerve to the brain.
  • Visual cortex in the brain processes the signals, resulting in sight.
• Senses:
  • Vision: sight, detected by photoreceptor cells in the retina.
  • Hearing: sound, detected by hair cells in the cochlea of the ear.
  • Touch: pressure, temperature, pain, detected by mechanoreceptors in the skin.
  • Taste: chemicals, detected by taste buds on the tongue.
  • Smell: chemicals, detected by olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity.
• Fast and slow pain fibers:
  • Fast fibers (myelinated) transmit sharp, immediate pain signals.
  • Slow fibers (unmyelinated) transmit dull, aching pain signals that persist over time.

This quiz covers various topics in psychology, including critical thinking, the nature vs nurture debate, functionalism, and stages of prenatal development. Explore how psychological processes function and the importance of evaluation in understanding behavior. Test your knowledge on the four levels of analysis that shape psychological science.