Psychology Color Perception and Cognitive Biases
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Questions and Answers

What does the Opponent-process Theory suggest about color perception?

  • Only the trichromatic theory applies to depth perception.
  • Colors are perceived through a single type of cone cell.
  • Complementary colors inhibit each other. (correct)
  • Color perception relies solely on the visual cortex.

    • Monocular cues require the use of both eyes to perceive depth.

    False

    What are the two main theories of color vision?

    Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory and Opponent-process Theory

    The color perceived as ______ is inhibited by the color perceived as yellow.

    <p>blue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following depth perception cues with their descriptions:

    <p>Linear perspective = Lines converge at a distance Relative size = Distant objects appear smaller Texture gradient = Texture becomes less apparent with distance Interposition = Closer objects block distant objects Height in plane = Distant objects are higher in the visual field</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one reason why our perceptions are not a reliable source of information?

    <p>Our intuition is influenced by cognitive biases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Introspection is considered a reliable method for understanding mental processes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one cognitive bias that can influence our perceptions.

    <p>Hindsight bias</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A __________ approach is needed to effectively study the causes of mental processes and behavior.

    <p>scientific</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the cognitive biases with their descriptions:

    <p>Hindsight bias = Believing an event was predictable after it has occurred Single-case bias = Overgeneralizing from one instance Perceiving order in random events = Seeing patterns in random occurrences Overconfidence bias = Having an excessive belief in one’s own abilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which quality is NOT part of the scientific attitude in psychology?

    <p>Arrogance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Causal factors of mental processes often operate independently of each other.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is critical thinking in psychology?

    <p>The ability to assess the quality of information and question assumptions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best defines a schema?

    <p>A mental container that organizes experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Accommodation involves modifying an existing schema when new experiences occur.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'Theory of Mind'?

    <p>The ability to understand that others have their own thoughts and perspectives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process by which children learn norms and values that regulate their social environment is called ______.

    <p>socialization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Piaget, development is influenced by which of the following factors?

    <p>Both nature and nurture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of attachment with its description:

    <p>Secure attachment = Distress at separation and seeks contact at reunion Insecure attachment - Anxious = Clings to mother, less exploration, remains upset at reunion Insecure attachment - Avoidant = Avoids contact and shows little distress at separation Disorganized attachment = Disoriented behavior and confusion towards caregiver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Infants with secure attachment typically show no distress when separated from their caregiver.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an emotional tie to another person in infants called?

    <p>Attachment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements accurately describes operant conditioning?

    <p>An organism's behavior is adjusted based on the consequences of their actions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Thorndike's law of effect states that punished behavior is more likely to be attempted in the future.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is spontaneous recovery in the context of classical conditioning?

    <p>The return of a conditioned response after a rest period following extinction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In behavioral psychology, ______ reinforcement involves adding something desirable to increase a behavior.

    <p>positive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms to their definitions:

    <p>Generalization = Responding to similar stimuli Discrimination = Responding only to a specific stimulus Extinction = Diminishing of conditioned response Continuous reinforcement = Reward given every time behavior occurs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of reinforcement leads to consistent responding over time?

    <p>Variable interval reinforcement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fixed ratio schedules of reinforcement typically lead to high and consistent rates of responding.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes generalization from discrimination in conditioning?

    <p>Generalization refers to the tendency to respond to similar stimuli, while discrimination involves responding only to specific stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a measure that provides consistent and stable answers across multiple observations?

    <p>Reliable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A measure can be considered valid if it accurately reflects the variable it claims to measure.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do we mean by 'generalizability' in research?

    <p>The extent to which results can be applied to other situations, individuals, or events.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A __________ sample is obtained when every individual in a population has an equal chance of being selected.

    <p>random</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a self-report measure in psychology?

    <p>A questionnaire about feelings of anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following research biases with their solutions:

    <p>Experiment bias = Double-blind procedure Placebo effect = Control groups Sampling bias = Random sampling Measurement bias = Standardized tools</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of a control group in a double-blind study?

    <p>To compare the effects of the treatment against a standard</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Hawthorne effect refers to a change in behavior due to being observed.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    High internal consistency means that the answers do not converge on the variable you are measuring.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does construct validity assess in a study?

    <p>The extent to which variables represent the abstract concepts of interest.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is replication in research?

    <p>The process of repeating a study using the same or similar protocols.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The act of making research results accessible to society is known as __________.

    <p>knowledge mobilization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the research practices with their descriptions:

    <p>HARKing = Hypothesizing After the Results are Known Unobtrusive measures = Naturalistic observations that do not interfere Confidentiality = Results are seen only by the researcher Anonymity = Responses recorded without linking to individuals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the ethical obligations of researchers?

    <p>To share research results with the public</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Peer-reviewed articles are typically published in journals targeting general public audiences.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one factor contributing to the lack of replication in research.

    <p>Low statistical power or research practices like HARKing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Overview of Psychology as Science

    • Psychology uses the scientific method to understand mental processes and behaviors.
    • Key elements of psychology as a science are carefully measured observations and experiments relying on introspection.
    • Key figures include Aristotle, Wilhelm Wundt, and William James.
    • Structuralism focused on the structure of the mind through introspection.
    • Functionalism focused on the function of mental processes, asking how they help people survive.
    • Behaviorism focused on observable behaviors, emphasizing the environment's role.
    • Modern psychologists use multiple perspectives.

    Historical Emergence of Psychology as a Science

    • Aristotle questioned the relationship between body and psyche.
    • Wilhelm Wundt is credited with helping to define psychology as a science.
    • Wundt carefully measured observations combined with introspection
    • Titchener, a student of Wundt, developed structuralism.
    • William James opposed structuralism, leading to functionalism.
    • Functionalism developed methods focused on mental outcomes.
    • Behaviorists (Watson and Skinner) focused specifically on observable responses.

    Why a Scientific Approach is Necessary

    • Intuition is influenced by biases like hindsight bias, single-case, and overconfidence.
    • A scientific approach safeguards us from these biases by using systematic methods, ensuring that knowledge is reliable and valid.

    The Scientific Method in Psychology

    • Begins with a phenomenon to be explained.
    • Deduces hypotheses that can be tested (true/false) and falsifiable.
    • Predicts behavior/event through data.
    • Tests hypotheses and accepts/rejects.
    • Collects data quantitatively and statistically to examine results and test hypotheses.
    • Revise hypotheses if results are not supported
    • Mobilize knowledge to share the findings.

    Principles of Scientific Thinking

    • Falsifiability: Can the claim be disproven?
    • Extraordinary claims: Is the evidence as strong as the claim?
    • Replicability: Can the results be duplicated?
    • Occam's razor: Do simpler explanations fit the data as well?
    • Correlation vs. causation: Can we know that A causes B?
    • Ruling out rival hypotheses Important to use these principles to evaluate the quality of research and conclusions.

    Research Methods in Psychology

    • Descriptive → case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys Qualitative data, description.
    • Correlational → measure the relationship between two or more measured variables; find correlations, predict.
    • Experimental → manipulated variable, measuring result. Understanding how variables are measured determines the nature of research conclusions.

    Cognitive Processes: Methods to Investigate and Understand

    • Stimulation (chemicals, magnets, electricity)
    • Lesion-based (surgery, brain injuries)
    • Animal models (controlled environments)
    • Noninvasive imaging techniques (EEG, MRI, PET, fMRI) These methods are used to better understand the functioning of the brain and the link between behaviour and the brain.

    Key Principles of Scientific Thinking (cont.)

    • Critical thinking skills are essential to making reasonable judgments, including assessing the credibility of sources, considering multiple perspectives, and discerning biases.
    • Awareness and avoidance of cognitive biases (confirmation bias, cognitive fixation, availability).

    Memory

    • Encoding, storing, and retrieving information are key steps.
    • Memory operates through sensory input → executive functions→ long term memory
    • Different kinds of memories (implicit, explicit, semantic, episodic, procedural, and flashbulb).
    • Encoding is the brain's means of receiving and interpreting information.
    • How we learn and remember: schemas and prototypes.
    • Problems: decay theory, proactive/retroactive interference, and misinformation effect.

    Consciousness

    • A person's subjective awareness of internal and external stimuli.
    • Attention → selective, or focused, and crucial for shaping conscious perceptions.
    • Selective attention → focused attention on one stimulus while ignoring others.
    • Bottom-up processing versus top-down processing
    • Subliminal perception → perception of stimuli outside of conscious awareness.
    • How conscious and attention shape perceptions → perceptual constancy (size, shape, and color).
    • How memories are formed and stored in the brain (atkinson-shiffrin model)

    Biological Foundations of Behavior

    • The nervous system is composed of neurons, basic units of communication.
    • Neurotransmitters are chemicals that relay signals across synapses.
    • The brain (CNS) integrates information from the environment, helping regulate body functions.
    • Endocrine system through hormones (slower, but longer-acting)
    • Types of neurons found in the PNS: sensory, motor.

    Social Psychology

    • Social situations affect people's interactions.
    • Social norms are shared expectations →influence attitudes, behaviours, perceptions.
    • Conformity (Sherif, Asch)
    • Cognitive dissonance
    • Compliance, and compliance techniques (ex. foot in the door)
    • Social identity and group dynamics.

    Attitudes

    • Evaluations of people, objects, events, or behaviors.
    • Attitudes affect behavior (and behavior can affect attitudes), but this can be difficult to predict due to situational influence.
    • Persuasion methods (central route, peripheral route), and how to evaluate their effects
    • Social marketing (trying to change attitudes using marketing principles.)

    Emotion

    • A varied and often conflicting experience.
    • Theories of emotion (James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Schachter-Singer)
    • Appraisal vs. emotional experiences
    • Physiological, bodily arousal, perception, thoughts & feelings (valence, arousal), expressive behavior. Commonly experienced emotions including their variations.

    Psychological Disorders

    • Diagnostic systems (DSM-V) and the challenges in defining normality.
    • Common diagnoses and underlying causes (ex. Anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive, eating disorders).

    Therapy

    • Techniques for understanding and improving behavior, emotional regulation, and self-awareness.
    • Types of therapies include biomedical treatments (medications) and psychological therapies.
    • CBT, DBT
    • Effective treatment often involves understanding the causes and maintaining the motivation to improve one's well-being.

    Culture and Diversity in Psychology

    • There are no universally accepted standards of normality.
    • Cultural values affect both the identification and treatment of disorders.
    • This awareness of cultural influences helps to improve our cross cultural understanding.

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    Description

    This quiz explores key concepts in psychology, focusing on color perception theories and cognitive biases. It covers theories like the Opponent-process Theory and essential terms related to perception and cognition. Test your understanding of how these elements influence mental processes and behavior.

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