Psychology Chapter 4
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Questions and Answers

What is the main finding regarding the weapon focus effect in laboratory studies?

  • Witnesses are more likely to identify the culprit when a weapon is present.
  • Witnesses recall more details when a weapon is present.
  • Witnesses report fewer details due to the presence of a weapon. (correct)
  • Weapons have no impact on witness recall.

What discrepancy is noted between laboratory studies and real crime witnesses regarding the weapon focus effect?

  • More detail is sometimes recalled in real crimes when a weapon is present. (correct)
  • All witnesses recall fewer details in real crimes.
  • Weapons always hinder witness identification in all settings.
  • Witnesses in laboratories demonstrate accurate real-world recall.

According to Yuille et al., how have laboratory findings been treated in American courts?

  • They are universally accepted and applied without debate.
  • They are excluded from all court testimonies.
  • They have been criticized for accuracy.
  • They are often misapplied without acknowledgment of limitations. (correct)

What should psychologists providing expert evidence ensure according to the content?

<p>They must inform the courts about the strengths and limitations of their findings. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested about the influence of incongruous stimuli on witnesses in laboratory settings?

<p>Incongruous stimuli lead to less accurate identifications. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What significant factor contributed to Cotton's exoneration in 1995?

<p>DNA testing ruled him out as the perpetrator. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which physical feature had the highest agreement in witness descriptions according to the study in the Netherlands?

<p>Sex (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the average number of characteristics mentioned by witnesses in the study?

<p>8 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect did the length of time between the crime and the witness statement have on accuracy?

<p>It improved accuracy. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following characteristics showed the lowest agreement in witness descriptions?

<p>Race (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did the study find regarding the correspondence between witnesses and police descriptions?

<p>It varied widely based on the physical feature. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one factor that predicted the accuracy of eyewitness statements?

<p>The physical position of the witness in relation to the offender. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which stage of memory formation do individuals focus on environmental details?

<p>Perception/attention stage (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of DNA exoneration cases involved eyewitness misidentification, according to the Innocence Project?

<p>70% (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one way that eyewitness testimony can aid an investigation?

<p>It helps in the planning and preparation of suspect interviews. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor was crucial in Ronald Cotton's wrongful conviction?

<p>Photo identification was made by one of the victims. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about eyewitness memory is true?

<p>It can be influenced by later intrusions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does eyewitness testimony play in the criminal justice system?

<p>It often forms the cornerstone of an investigation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the results of Ronald Cotton’s trials?

<p>He received a sentence of life plus 54 years in prison. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What misconception about human memory is highlighted in the context of eyewitness testimony?

<p>Human memory is completely infallible. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which piece of evidence did NOT positively support Ronald Cotton's conviction?

<p>One victim failed to identify him in a photo array. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the encoding stage in memory?

<p>To process and store information that is attended to (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is categorized as an estimator variable in eyewitness testimony?

<p>Lighting conditions at the time of the crime (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can affect the retrieval stage of memory?

<p>External information received after the event (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the constructive nature of memory imply?

<p>Memories can be altered by new information or biases (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a system variable impacting eyewitness testimony?

<p>Type of crime being witnessed (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which memory stage does information from short-term memory transition to long-term memory?

<p>Encoding stage (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of an internal factor affecting memory reconstruction?

<p>Witness's prior experiences or biases (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about short-term memory is correct?

<p>It serves as a temporary holding facility for limited information (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one problem identified with line-ups that relates to the characteristics of the fillers?

<p>Inadequately matched fillers in relation to eyewitness descriptions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'unconscious transference' refer to in the context of eyewitness identification?

<p>A witness recognizing the suspect from a previous encounter but not the crime scene (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What recommendation aims to reduce bias in line-up outcomes?

<p>The officer conducting the line-up should be blind to the suspect's identity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following recommendations is related to the witness's perception of the officer during the line-up?

<p>Witnesses must be informed that the officer does not know the suspect (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key feature to ensure in line-up procedures according to the recommendations?

<p>The suspect should match the physical description provided by the eyewitness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of asking witnesses about their confidence in their choice at the time of the line-up?

<p>It provides insight into the accuracy of their recollection (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'physical bias' in the context of identity parades?

<p>The physical differences between the suspect and fillers mislead the witness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one negative consequence of not using a double-blind procedure in line-ups?

<p>The officers' inadvertent influence on the witness's choice (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a main critique concerning the application of eyewitness testimony findings in court?

<p>Eyewitness testimony research often lacks generalizable findings. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to critiques, what is a significant limitation of most eyewitness testimony studies?

<p>They mainly use college student participants. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do Ebbesen and Konecni suggest about the translation of exposure length to eyewitness accuracy?

<p>The risks of error from longer exposure cannot be precisely calculated. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What issue do critiques highlight regarding expert testimonies in court?

<p>Inconsistencies in eyewitness research are often overlooked. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What caution do psychologists need to exercise when applying research findings to individual cases?

<p>Trends in research may not apply to specific situations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do Ebbesen and Konecni imply about the conclusions drawn from eyewitness testimony?

<p>Conclusions are often based on a broad population rather than individual circumstances. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it challenging for psychologists to assess eyewitness accuracy in individual scenarios?

<p>The complexity of human memory prevents straightforward assessments. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of PTSD, what issue do psychologists face when attributing causes to individual cases?

<p>Identifying the exact source of PTSD may be complex and uncertain. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Eyewitness misidentification

The process where people's memories of events can be distorted, leading to incorrect identification of suspects.

Eyewitness testimony (EWT) in criminal justice

Information provided by witnesses that plays a crucial role in most criminal investigations, often forming the basis for decisions about suspects, charges, and investigation strategies.

Miscarriage of justice

The wrongful conviction of an innocent person, often due to unreliable eyewitness testimony.

Human memory being infallible

A common misconception that human memory is always accurate and reliable.

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DNA exoneration

A case where DNA testing proved the innocence of a person convicted based on eyewitness testimony.

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Ronald Cotton case

A notable case where Ronald Cotton was wrongly convicted of rape based on faulty eyewitness identification.

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Photo identification

The use of visual aids, like photographs or line-ups, to help witnesses identify potential suspects.

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Police Lineup Identification

A procedure where a witness views multiple individuals, including the potential suspect, to try and identify the perpetrator.

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Eyewitness Evidence Accuracy

The reliability of eyewitness accounts in criminal investigations.

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Van Koppen and Lochun (1997) Study

A study analyzing 400 court cases in the Netherlands examining the accuracy of witness descriptions of offenders.

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Witness Description Accuracy

The likelihood that a witness accurately describes a physical characteristic of an offender.

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Variables Predicting Eyewitness Accuracy

Factors that influence the accuracy of witness descriptions, including the duration of the crime, the relationship between the witness and the offender, and the time between the crime and the statement.

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Encoding

The process of transforming sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory.

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Vague Witness Descriptions

Witness accounts of an offender's basic characteristics like sex, race, height, and age.

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Short-Term Memory

A temporary storage system that holds a limited amount of information for a short period of time.

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Memory Stages

The process of memory, involving the perception of details and the storage of memories.

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Long-Term Memory

A long-term storage system that holds a vast amount of information for an extended period.

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Retrieval

The process of accessing and retrieving information from long-term memory.

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Perception/Attention Stage

The first step in memory formation, where you perceive and pay attention to details in your environment.

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Constructive Memory

The idea that memories are not exact recordings but are actively reconstructed based on stored information and other factors.

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DNA

Genetic material that can be used to identify individuals.

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Post-Event Information

Information received after an event can influence the memory of what actually happened.

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Estimator Variables

Factors present during the event that cannot be controlled, such as lighting, stress, or witness intoxication.

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System Variables

Factors that are controllable in the investigation process, such as lineup procedures or questioning techniques.

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Inadequately matched fillers

A lineup where the foils (non-suspects) do not match the witness's description of the offender, reducing the lineup's effectiveness.

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Physical bias (oddball)

When the suspect's photo in a lineup stands out due to physical differences (size, background), causing the witness to assume it's the suspect.

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No double-blind procedure

The police officer conducting the lineup should not know who the suspect is to prevent unintentional signalling to the witness.

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Unconscious transference

When a witness mistakenly identifies a familiar person from elsewhere as the suspect, even if they weren't at the crime scene.

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Blind lineup administrator

The officer administering the lineup should be unaware of the suspect's identity to reduce potential bias in their actions or communication.

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Witness informed of blind procedure

Witnesses should be informed that the officer conducting the lineup is unaware of the suspect's identity to avoid misinterpreting the officer's behavior.

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Avoid suspect distinctiveness

Suspects should not stand out from the fillers in terms of features highlighted by the witness, preventing undue attention.

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Confidence assessment

Witnesses should be asked about their confidence in their identification at the time of the lineup, providing valuable information for later evaluations.

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Weapon Focus Effect

The tendency for eyewitnesses to focus on a weapon at a crime scene, impacting their ability to recall other details like the perpetrator's appearance.

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Laboratory Studies

Research studies conducted in controlled environments to examine psychological phenomena.

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Applied Research

The application of scientific knowledge to real-world situations, like a criminal investigation.

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Controversy of Expert Evidence

A disagreement or debate about the reliability of expert evidence in legal settings, particularly regarding eyewitness testimony.

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Limitations of Laboratory Studies

Expert witnesses should be cautious about transferring results from laboratory studies directly to real-world events, as they may not always apply accurately.

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Overstating Eyewitness Research

Expert witnesses may overstate the reliability of eyewitness research findings, leading to inaccurate assessments of eyewitness accuracy in specific cases.

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Generalization in Court

Psychologists should be cautious in applying research findings based on statistical populations to individual witnesses in court.

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College Student Bias in Eyewitness Research

The vast majority of eyewitness research involves college students, raising concerns about the generalizability of findings to real-world populations.

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Exposure Time Differences in Research

The duration of exposure to a crime event can differ greatly between real life and laboratory settings, impacting the reliability of research findings.

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Translating Research Variables

Research on eyewitness testimony often overlooks the challenges in translating variables like exposure time into the likelihood of a witness being wrong.

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Missing Limitations in Expert Testimony

Experts often fail to address the limitations of interpreting the impact of exposure time on eyewitness accuracy in court testimony.

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The Subjectivity of Eyewitness Testimony

The accuracy of eyewitness testimony is often subjective and can be influenced by a number of factors, making it difficult to assess with certainty.

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Ascribing PTSD Causes

The tendency to assume that a woman's post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is directly caused by a specific traumatic event, without considering other potential causes.

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Study Notes

CPS2822: Eyewitness Testimony - Week 4

  • Course code: CPS2822
  • Topic: Eyewitness testimony (EWT)
  • Lecturer: Dr. Kalliopi Megari
  • Department: Psychology

Outline

  • Eyewitness testimony (EWT): Importance and issues
  • The accuracy of EWT
  • Memory stages and potential errors
  • Later intrusions into eyewitness memory
  • Improving the validity of line-ups
  • Critiques of expert evidence at court

How does EWT help?

  • EWT aids investigations by assisting in:
    • Choosing the offense
    • Selecting suspects and defendants
    • Outlining required evidence points
    • Planning and preparing suspect interviews
  • EWT is crucial in the criminal justice system, often forming the basis of investigations.

Eyewitness testimony as a central issue

  • Human memory is often perceived as infallible.
  • The Innocence Project (2017) highlights the role of eyewitness misidentification in over 70% of proven DNA exonerated cases in the US.
  • DNA exoneration refers to false convictions overturned through DNA testing.
  • Serious miscarriages of justice are a consequence of flawed eyewitness testimony.

Ronald Cotton Case

  • Two separate rapes occurred in July 1984.
  • Ronald Cotton was arrested in August 1984.
  • First trial (January 1985): Convicted of one rape and burglary.
  • Second trial (November 1987): Convicted of both rapes and burglary.
  • Sentence: Life plus 54 years in prison.
  • A photo identification and police line-up identification were made by one victim.
  • A flashlight from Cotton's home matched the description.
  • Rubber from Cotton's shoe was consistent with rubber found at the crime scene.
  • Cotton had an alibi confirmed by his family.
  • Evidence of an inmate confessing to the crimes was not admissible.
  • DNA testing in 1995 proved that semen did not match Cotton's DNA.
  • Cotton was exonerated in 1995 after 10 years in prison.

The accuracy of witness evidence

  • Very little research compares offender characteristics with witness descriptions.
  • Evidence suggests witnesses are accurate in describing individual characteristics but not always consistently.
  • Van Koppen and Lochun (1997) study in the Netherlands examined court records.
  • The study involved 1300 witnesses and 2300 offenders, focusing on robberies of commercial buildings and dwellings.
  • The majority of witness statements were obtained within two days of the crime.
  • Correspondence between witness and police descriptions varied depending on the feature being described (e.g., sex, eye shape, hair color, face shape, race, height, ears).
  • Witnesses typically mentioned only eight features out of a maximum of 43 possible characteristics.
  • Variables that predicted eyewitness accuracy included longer statements, shorter distances between witness and offender, shorter crime duration, and witness positioning relative to the offender.
  • Ironically, longer delays between crime and statement sometimes lead to more accurate descriptions.
  • Descriptions of vague characteristics (e.g., offender's sex, race, height) are often accurate but insufficient for identification.

Memory stages

  • Memory is a process involving stages: perception/attention, encoding, short-term memory, long-term memory, and retrieval.
  • Perception/attention focuses on details in the environment.
  • Encoding involves storing perceived information.
  • Short-term memory has limited capacity, passing information into long-term memory.
  • Long-term memory stores information for later access.
  • Memory retrieval is the process of accessing information.
  • Not all details are encoded or transferred to long-term memory; factors influence the process.

Problems at Retrieval

  • Memory is constructive, reconstructing information from the event and other knowledge.
  • Information received after the event can alter memory.
  • Filling in the blanks is a common issue.
  • Internal and external factors affect reconstruction.

Summary of factors that influence EWT

  • Estimator variables (uncontrollable factors): Situational factors (physical conditions, type of crime, stress/arousal, duration of incident, delay effects), Witness factors (race, confidence, sex, age, intelligence, personality, extraneous information).
  • System variables (controllable factors): Parade factors (composition, functional size, instructions, types of parades, mode of presentation, social dynamics).

Common myths about eyewitness testimony

  • Myth 1: Memory is a videotape.
  • Myth 2: Question wording doesn't influence the response.
  • Myth 3: Stress enhances memory.
  • Myth 4: Race of witness and perpetrator has no impact.
  • Myth 5: Weapon focus doesn't affect memory.

Later intrusions into eyewitness memory

  • New information influences recollections of events.
  • Verbal information can affect visual memory.
  • Interviewer techniques and leading questions may distort eyewitness memory.
  • Loftus and Palmer (1974) experiment demonstrated how the wording of questions affected speed estimations.

Improving the validity of line-ups

  • Identification evidence includes photospreads and line-ups.
  • Simultaneous line-ups present all suspects at once.
  • Sequential line-ups display suspects one at a time.
  • Modern line-ups increasingly use video clips.

Problems with line-ups

  • Inadequately matched fillers: foils or fillers don't match suspect descriptions.
  • Physical bias (oddball): suspect's picture is noticeably dissimilar to others.
  • No double-blind procedure: Line-up administrator knows the suspect's identity.
  • Unconscious transference: Witness encounters suspect previously, but doesn't realize.
  • Recommendations for improving line-up procedures: Wells, et al. (2020)

Critiques of expert evidence in court

  • Expert psychologists may mislead courts regarding eyewitness reliability
  • Many inconsistencies in eyewitness testimony research outcomes.
  • Most research uses college student participants.
  • Length of exposure to crimes varies significantly between lab and real-world situations.
  • Issues with translating lab findings to real-world scenarios.
  • Lack of mention to longer exposure issues in court testimonies.
  • Psychologists should be aware of the limitations of research findings when presented in court.

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Eyewitness Testimony CPS2822 PDF

Description

Explore the intricacies of the weapon focus effect as revealed in laboratory studies compared to real-world crime witnessing. This quiz delves into the findings of Yuille et al. and emphasizes the importance of expert psychological evidence in legal contexts. Test your knowledge on key studies and factors influencing witness accuracy.

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