Psychology Chapter 4
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What is the main finding regarding the weapon focus effect in laboratory studies?

  • Witnesses are more likely to identify the culprit when a weapon is present.
  • Witnesses recall more details when a weapon is present.
  • Witnesses report fewer details due to the presence of a weapon. (correct)
  • Weapons have no impact on witness recall.
  • What discrepancy is noted between laboratory studies and real crime witnesses regarding the weapon focus effect?

  • More detail is sometimes recalled in real crimes when a weapon is present. (correct)
  • All witnesses recall fewer details in real crimes.
  • Weapons always hinder witness identification in all settings.
  • Witnesses in laboratories demonstrate accurate real-world recall.
  • According to Yuille et al., how have laboratory findings been treated in American courts?

  • They are universally accepted and applied without debate.
  • They are excluded from all court testimonies.
  • They have been criticized for accuracy.
  • They are often misapplied without acknowledgment of limitations. (correct)
  • What should psychologists providing expert evidence ensure according to the content?

    <p>They must inform the courts about the strengths and limitations of their findings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is suggested about the influence of incongruous stimuli on witnesses in laboratory settings?

    <p>Incongruous stimuli lead to less accurate identifications.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant factor contributed to Cotton's exoneration in 1995?

    <p>DNA testing ruled him out as the perpetrator.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which physical feature had the highest agreement in witness descriptions according to the study in the Netherlands?

    <p>Sex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the average number of characteristics mentioned by witnesses in the study?

    <p>8</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect did the length of time between the crime and the witness statement have on accuracy?

    <p>It improved accuracy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following characteristics showed the lowest agreement in witness descriptions?

    <p>Race</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study find regarding the correspondence between witnesses and police descriptions?

    <p>It varied widely based on the physical feature.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one factor that predicted the accuracy of eyewitness statements?

    <p>The physical position of the witness in relation to the offender.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which stage of memory formation do individuals focus on environmental details?

    <p>Perception/attention stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of DNA exoneration cases involved eyewitness misidentification, according to the Innocence Project?

    <p>70%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one way that eyewitness testimony can aid an investigation?

    <p>It helps in the planning and preparation of suspect interviews.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor was crucial in Ronald Cotton's wrongful conviction?

    <p>Photo identification was made by one of the victims.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about eyewitness memory is true?

    <p>It can be influenced by later intrusions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does eyewitness testimony play in the criminal justice system?

    <p>It often forms the cornerstone of an investigation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the results of Ronald Cotton’s trials?

    <p>He received a sentence of life plus 54 years in prison.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What misconception about human memory is highlighted in the context of eyewitness testimony?

    <p>Human memory is completely infallible.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which piece of evidence did NOT positively support Ronald Cotton's conviction?

    <p>One victim failed to identify him in a photo array.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the encoding stage in memory?

    <p>To process and store information that is attended to</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is categorized as an estimator variable in eyewitness testimony?

    <p>Lighting conditions at the time of the crime</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can affect the retrieval stage of memory?

    <p>External information received after the event</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the constructive nature of memory imply?

    <p>Memories can be altered by new information or biases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a system variable impacting eyewitness testimony?

    <p>Type of crime being witnessed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which memory stage does information from short-term memory transition to long-term memory?

    <p>Encoding stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of an internal factor affecting memory reconstruction?

    <p>Witness's prior experiences or biases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about short-term memory is correct?

    <p>It serves as a temporary holding facility for limited information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one problem identified with line-ups that relates to the characteristics of the fillers?

    <p>Inadequately matched fillers in relation to eyewitness descriptions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'unconscious transference' refer to in the context of eyewitness identification?

    <p>A witness recognizing the suspect from a previous encounter but not the crime scene</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What recommendation aims to reduce bias in line-up outcomes?

    <p>The officer conducting the line-up should be blind to the suspect's identity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following recommendations is related to the witness's perception of the officer during the line-up?

    <p>Witnesses must be informed that the officer does not know the suspect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature to ensure in line-up procedures according to the recommendations?

    <p>The suspect should match the physical description provided by the eyewitness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of asking witnesses about their confidence in their choice at the time of the line-up?

    <p>It provides insight into the accuracy of their recollection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'physical bias' in the context of identity parades?

    <p>The physical differences between the suspect and fillers mislead the witness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one negative consequence of not using a double-blind procedure in line-ups?

    <p>The officers' inadvertent influence on the witness's choice</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a main critique concerning the application of eyewitness testimony findings in court?

    <p>Eyewitness testimony research often lacks generalizable findings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to critiques, what is a significant limitation of most eyewitness testimony studies?

    <p>They mainly use college student participants.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do Ebbesen and Konecni suggest about the translation of exposure length to eyewitness accuracy?

    <p>The risks of error from longer exposure cannot be precisely calculated.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What issue do critiques highlight regarding expert testimonies in court?

    <p>Inconsistencies in eyewitness research are often overlooked.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What caution do psychologists need to exercise when applying research findings to individual cases?

    <p>Trends in research may not apply to specific situations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do Ebbesen and Konecni imply about the conclusions drawn from eyewitness testimony?

    <p>Conclusions are often based on a broad population rather than individual circumstances.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it challenging for psychologists to assess eyewitness accuracy in individual scenarios?

    <p>The complexity of human memory prevents straightforward assessments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of PTSD, what issue do psychologists face when attributing causes to individual cases?

    <p>Identifying the exact source of PTSD may be complex and uncertain.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    CPS2822: Eyewitness Testimony - Week 4

    • Course code: CPS2822
    • Topic: Eyewitness testimony (EWT)
    • Lecturer: Dr. Kalliopi Megari
    • Department: Psychology

    Outline

    • Eyewitness testimony (EWT): Importance and issues
    • The accuracy of EWT
    • Memory stages and potential errors
    • Later intrusions into eyewitness memory
    • Improving the validity of line-ups
    • Critiques of expert evidence at court

    How does EWT help?

    • EWT aids investigations by assisting in:
      • Choosing the offense
      • Selecting suspects and defendants
      • Outlining required evidence points
      • Planning and preparing suspect interviews
    • EWT is crucial in the criminal justice system, often forming the basis of investigations.

    Eyewitness testimony as a central issue

    • Human memory is often perceived as infallible.
    • The Innocence Project (2017) highlights the role of eyewitness misidentification in over 70% of proven DNA exonerated cases in the US.
    • DNA exoneration refers to false convictions overturned through DNA testing.
    • Serious miscarriages of justice are a consequence of flawed eyewitness testimony.

    Ronald Cotton Case

    • Two separate rapes occurred in July 1984.
    • Ronald Cotton was arrested in August 1984.
    • First trial (January 1985): Convicted of one rape and burglary.
    • Second trial (November 1987): Convicted of both rapes and burglary.
    • Sentence: Life plus 54 years in prison.
    • A photo identification and police line-up identification were made by one victim.
    • A flashlight from Cotton's home matched the description.
    • Rubber from Cotton's shoe was consistent with rubber found at the crime scene.
    • Cotton had an alibi confirmed by his family.
    • Evidence of an inmate confessing to the crimes was not admissible.
    • DNA testing in 1995 proved that semen did not match Cotton's DNA.
    • Cotton was exonerated in 1995 after 10 years in prison.

    The accuracy of witness evidence

    • Very little research compares offender characteristics with witness descriptions.
    • Evidence suggests witnesses are accurate in describing individual characteristics but not always consistently.
    • Van Koppen and Lochun (1997) study in the Netherlands examined court records.
    • The study involved 1300 witnesses and 2300 offenders, focusing on robberies of commercial buildings and dwellings.
    • The majority of witness statements were obtained within two days of the crime.
    • Correspondence between witness and police descriptions varied depending on the feature being described (e.g., sex, eye shape, hair color, face shape, race, height, ears).
    • Witnesses typically mentioned only eight features out of a maximum of 43 possible characteristics.
    • Variables that predicted eyewitness accuracy included longer statements, shorter distances between witness and offender, shorter crime duration, and witness positioning relative to the offender.
    • Ironically, longer delays between crime and statement sometimes lead to more accurate descriptions.
    • Descriptions of vague characteristics (e.g., offender's sex, race, height) are often accurate but insufficient for identification.

    Memory stages

    • Memory is a process involving stages: perception/attention, encoding, short-term memory, long-term memory, and retrieval.
    • Perception/attention focuses on details in the environment.
    • Encoding involves storing perceived information.
    • Short-term memory has limited capacity, passing information into long-term memory.
    • Long-term memory stores information for later access.
    • Memory retrieval is the process of accessing information.
    • Not all details are encoded or transferred to long-term memory; factors influence the process.

    Problems at Retrieval

    • Memory is constructive, reconstructing information from the event and other knowledge.
    • Information received after the event can alter memory.
    • Filling in the blanks is a common issue.
    • Internal and external factors affect reconstruction.

    Summary of factors that influence EWT

    • Estimator variables (uncontrollable factors): Situational factors (physical conditions, type of crime, stress/arousal, duration of incident, delay effects), Witness factors (race, confidence, sex, age, intelligence, personality, extraneous information).
    • System variables (controllable factors): Parade factors (composition, functional size, instructions, types of parades, mode of presentation, social dynamics).

    Common myths about eyewitness testimony

    • Myth 1: Memory is a videotape.
    • Myth 2: Question wording doesn't influence the response.
    • Myth 3: Stress enhances memory.
    • Myth 4: Race of witness and perpetrator has no impact.
    • Myth 5: Weapon focus doesn't affect memory.

    Later intrusions into eyewitness memory

    • New information influences recollections of events.
    • Verbal information can affect visual memory.
    • Interviewer techniques and leading questions may distort eyewitness memory.
    • Loftus and Palmer (1974) experiment demonstrated how the wording of questions affected speed estimations.

    Improving the validity of line-ups

    • Identification evidence includes photospreads and line-ups.
    • Simultaneous line-ups present all suspects at once.
    • Sequential line-ups display suspects one at a time.
    • Modern line-ups increasingly use video clips.

    Problems with line-ups

    • Inadequately matched fillers: foils or fillers don't match suspect descriptions.
    • Physical bias (oddball): suspect's picture is noticeably dissimilar to others.
    • No double-blind procedure: Line-up administrator knows the suspect's identity.
    • Unconscious transference: Witness encounters suspect previously, but doesn't realize.
    • Recommendations for improving line-up procedures: Wells, et al. (2020)

    Critiques of expert evidence in court

    • Expert psychologists may mislead courts regarding eyewitness reliability
    • Many inconsistencies in eyewitness testimony research outcomes.
    • Most research uses college student participants.
    • Length of exposure to crimes varies significantly between lab and real-world situations.
    • Issues with translating lab findings to real-world scenarios.
    • Lack of mention to longer exposure issues in court testimonies.
    • Psychologists should be aware of the limitations of research findings when presented in court.

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    Description

    Explore the intricacies of the weapon focus effect as revealed in laboratory studies compared to real-world crime witnessing. This quiz delves into the findings of Yuille et al. and emphasizes the importance of expert psychological evidence in legal contexts. Test your knowledge on key studies and factors influencing witness accuracy.

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