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Questions and Answers
What is the philosophical idea that all mental processes in the mind are reducible to physical processes in the brain?
What is the philosophical idea that all mental processes in the mind are reducible to physical processes in the brain?
philosophical materialism
What is the idea that complex mental phenomena like conscious awareness can be understood by breaking them down into elemental parts?
What is the idea that complex mental phenomena like conscious awareness can be understood by breaking them down into elemental parts?
structuralism
Who most influenced the rise of functionalism?
Who most influenced the rise of functionalism?
Darwin
What therapy is meant to help people attain insight into their unconscious minds?
What therapy is meant to help people attain insight into their unconscious minds?
Who believed that behaviorism would make psychology an objective science?
Who believed that behaviorism would make psychology an objective science?
Whose principle of reinforcement explains how behavior is shaped by its consequences?
Whose principle of reinforcement explains how behavior is shaped by its consequences?
What group of American psychologists resisted behaviorism in the early 1900s?
What group of American psychologists resisted behaviorism in the early 1900s?
What invention made the cognitive revolution possible?
What invention made the cognitive revolution possible?
John Garcia's experiments helped bring about which type of psychology?
John Garcia's experiments helped bring about which type of psychology?
What are the two new areas of psychology that have emerged in the 21st century?
What are the two new areas of psychology that have emerged in the 21st century?
What is the belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation?
What is the belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation?
What is a falsifiable prediction called?
What is a falsifiable prediction called?
If a detector is used to measure the same property twice but produces different measurements, then it lacks what?
If a detector is used to measure the same property twice but produces different measurements, then it lacks what?
What are aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone wants or expects them to?
What are aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone wants or expects them to?
What is the average value of all measurements in a particular distribution?
What is the average value of all measurements in a particular distribution?
What does the sign of r (correlation coefficient) show?
What does the sign of r (correlation coefficient) show?
What keeps us from concluding that one variable is the cause and the other is the effect when two variables are correlated?
What keeps us from concluding that one variable is the cause and the other is the effect when two variables are correlated?
A researcher administers a questionnaire concerning attitudes towards tax increases to people of all genders and ages who live all across Canada. The dependent variable in the study is the __________ of the participants.
A researcher administers a questionnaire concerning attitudes towards tax increases to people of all genders and ages who live all across Canada. The dependent variable in the study is the __________ of the participants.
What type of experiment defines variables as they are defined in the real world?
What type of experiment defines variables as they are defined in the real world?
When people find evidence that confirms their beliefs, they often do what?
When people find evidence that confirms their beliefs, they often do what?
Signals are transmitted from one neuron to another across the what?
Signals are transmitted from one neuron to another across the what?
Which type of neuron receives information from the external world and conveys this information to the brain?
Which type of neuron receives information from the external world and conveys this information to the brain?
What is an electrical signal that is conducted along the length of a neuron's axon to the synapse?
What is an electrical signal that is conducted along the length of a neuron's axon to the synapse?
What are chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron's dendrites?
What are chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron's dendrites?
What automatically controls the organs of the body?
What automatically controls the organs of the body?
Which part of the hindbrain coordinates fine motor skills?
Which part of the hindbrain coordinates fine motor skills?
What part of the brain is involved in movement and arousal?
What part of the brain is involved in movement and arousal?
What regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual arousal?
What regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual arousal?
What explains the apparent beneficial effects of cardiovascular exercise on aspects of brain function and cognitive performance?
What explains the apparent beneficial effects of cardiovascular exercise on aspects of brain function and cognitive performance?
Genes set the ___ in populations within a given environment.
Genes set the ___ in populations within a given environment.
Sensation involves _____________ whereas perception involves _____________
Sensation involves _____________ whereas perception involves _____________
What process converts physical signals from the environment into neural signals carried by sensory neurons into the central nervous system?
What process converts physical signals from the environment into neural signals carried by sensory neurons into the central nervous system?
What is the smallest intensity needed to just barely detect a stimulus?
What is the smallest intensity needed to just barely detect a stimulus?
Signal detection theory allows researchers to distinguish between what?
Signal detection theory allows researchers to distinguish between what?
What leads to our ability to see colors?
What leads to our ability to see colors?
Which part of the brain is the location of the primary visual cortex?
Which part of the brain is the location of the primary visual cortex?
Our ability to combine visual details so that we perceive unified objects is explained by what theory?
Our ability to combine visual details so that we perceive unified objects is explained by what theory?
What kind of cues are relative size and linear perspective?
What kind of cues are relative size and linear perspective?
What is crucial to our ability to localize sound sources?
What is crucial to our ability to localize sound sources?
What best explains why smells can have immediate and powerful effects?
What best explains why smells can have immediate and powerful effects?
Currently, unconscious processes are understood as what?
Currently, unconscious processes are understood as what?
The _______ unconscious is at work when subliminal and unconscious processes influence thought and behavior.
The _______ unconscious is at work when subliminal and unconscious processes influence thought and behavior.
What is one of the major patterns of human life called, related to sleep and waking?
What is one of the major patterns of human life called, related to sleep and waking?
Sleep needs _______ over the life span.
Sleep needs _______ over the life span.
During dreaming, the dreamer ________ changes in emotion, thought, and sensation.
During dreaming, the dreamer ________ changes in emotion, thought, and sensation.
Which explanation of dreams proposes that they are produced when the mind attempts to make sense of random neural activity during sleep?
Which explanation of dreams proposes that they are produced when the mind attempts to make sense of random neural activity during sleep?
Psychoactive drugs influence consciousness by altering the effects of what?
Psychoactive drugs influence consciousness by altering the effects of what?
What occurs when larger doses of a drug are required over time to achieve the same effect?
What occurs when larger doses of a drug are required over time to achieve the same effect?
What reflects people's beliefs about how alcohol will influence them in particular situations?
What reflects people's beliefs about how alcohol will influence them in particular situations?
Hypnosis has been proven to have an _______ effect.
Hypnosis has been proven to have an _______ effect.
What is the process by which we transform what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory?
What is the process by which we transform what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory?
What is the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory?
What is the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory?
What kind of memory storage holds information for a second or two?
What kind of memory storage holds information for a second or two?
What process involves making memories stable in the brain?
What process involves making memories stable in the brain?
What strengthens synaptic connections?
What strengthens synaptic connections?
What increases the likelihood of recalling a sad memory when you are in a sad mood?
What increases the likelihood of recalling a sad memory when you are in a sad mood?
What do neuroimaging studies suggest activates the brain when trying to remember?
What do neuroimaging studies suggest activates the brain when trying to remember?
What is the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences called?
What is the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences called?
Remembering a family reunion that you attended as a child illustrates what type of memory?
Remembering a family reunion that you attended as a child illustrates what type of memory?
Eyewitness misidentification or false recognition is most likely a result of what?
Eyewitness misidentification or false recognition is most likely a result of what?
In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a what?
In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a what?
What occurs when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus?
What occurs when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus?
What experiment by Watson and Rayner sought to demonstrate that even sophisticated behaviors such as emotion are subject to classical conditioning?
What experiment by Watson and Rayner sought to demonstrate that even sophisticated behaviors such as emotion are subject to classical conditioning?
Which part of the brain is involved in the classical conditioning of fear?
Which part of the brain is involved in the classical conditioning of fear?
After having a bad experience with a particular type of food, what can people develop towards that food?
After having a bad experience with a particular type of food, what can people develop towards that food?
Which mechanisms have no role in Skinner's approach to behavior?
Which mechanisms have no role in Skinner's approach to behavior?
What provides evidence for a cognitive element in operant conditioning because it occurs without any obvious reinforcement?
What provides evidence for a cognitive element in operant conditioning because it occurs without any obvious reinforcement?
Neural research indicates that observational learning is closely tied to brain areas involved in what?
Neural research indicates that observational learning is closely tied to brain areas involved in what?
What kind of learning takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition?
What kind of learning takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition?
Which study strategy has been shown to be the most effective?
Which study strategy has been shown to be the most effective?
What governs the combining of words to form phrases and sentences?
What governs the combining of words to form phrases and sentences?
What theory of language development posits it as an innate biological capacity?
What theory of language development posits it as an innate biological capacity?
Damage to which brain region results in difficulty in producing grammatical speech?
Damage to which brain region results in difficulty in producing grammatical speech?
What hypothesis maintains that language shapes the nature of thought?
What hypothesis maintains that language shapes the nature of thought?
What is the most typical member of a category called?
What is the most typical member of a category called?
Which theory of concept formation is based on our judgment of features that appear to be characteristic of category members?
Which theory of concept formation is based on our judgment of features that appear to be characteristic of category members?
Inability to recognize objects that belong to a particular category is known as what?
Inability to recognize objects that belong to a particular category is known as what?
What causes people to give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is phrased?
What causes people to give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is phrased?
What process involves deciding on a goal, analyzing the current situation, and settling on strategies to reduce differences?
What process involves deciding on a goal, analyzing the current situation, and settling on strategies to reduce differences?
What kind of reasoning is aimed at deciding on a course of action?
What kind of reasoning is aimed at deciding on a course of action?
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Study Notes
Key Concepts in Psychology
- Philosophical Materialism: All mental processes are reducible to physical processes in the brain.
- Structuralism: Understanding complex mental phenomena by breaking them down into elemental parts.
- Functionalism Influences: Charles Darwin significantly impacted the rise of functionalism, emphasizing the function of mental processes.
- Psychoanalysis: A therapeutic approach to gain insight into unconscious thoughts and feelings.
- Behaviorism: Watson believed behaviorism would enable psychology to be an objective science, focusing solely on observable behaviors.
- Reinforcement Theory: B.F. Skinner's principle shows that behavior is shaped by its consequences.
- Early 1900s Psychology Resistance: Social psychologists in America resisted the behaviorist approach of the time.
- Cognitive Revolution: Enabled by the invention of the digital computer, which allowed new ways to study mental processes.
- Evolutionary Psychology: John Garcia's rat experiments illustrated how certain associations are quickly learned, enhancing evolutionary psychology.
- 21st Century Psychology: Emergence of behavioral neuroscience and cultural psychology as significant fields.
Research and Methodology
- Empiricism: Accurate knowledge acquisition through observation is central to scientific study.
- Hypothesis: A falsifiable prediction that can be tested.
- Reliability: Consistency of measurements; lack of reliability indicates issues with the measuring instrument.
- Demand Characteristics: Observational settings that influence participant behavior based on perceived expectations.
- Mean: Average value in a dataset.
Correlation and Causation
- Correlation Coefficient (r): The sign indicates the direction of the correlation between two variables.
- Third-Variable Problem: A challenge in establishing causality due to the influence of an unseen variable.
- Attitude as Dependent Variable: In studies assessing attitudes, the participants' attitudes towards subjects like tax increases serve as the dependent variable.
Neuroanatomy and Function
- Synapse: The junction through which signals are transmitted between neurons.
- Sensory Neurons: Neurons that convey information from the external world to the brain.
- Action Potential: An electrical signal moving along the axon of a neuron.
- Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that transmit information across synapses to receiving neurons.
- Autonomic Nervous System: Part of the nervous system that regulates involuntary bodily functions.
- Cerebellum: Coordinates fine motor skills.
- Hypothalamus: Regulates crucial bodily functions like temperature, hunger, and thirst.
Sensation and Perception
- Transduction: The process of converting physical environmental signals into neural signals.
- Absolute Threshold: The minimum intensity needed to detect a stimulus.
- Monocular Depth Cues: Visual cues like relative size and linear perspective that help in depth perception.
- Feature-Integration Theory: Explains how we combine visual details into unified perceptual objects.
Memory and Learning
- Encoding: The process of transforming perceptions into lasting memories.
- Long-Term Potentiation: Strengthening of synaptic connections, crucial for memory consolidation.
- Episodic Memory: Recollection of specific events, like family reunions from childhood.
- Classical Conditioning: Involves pairing a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to induce a conditioned response.
- Extinction: Occurs when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Language and Thinking
- Nativist Theory: Language development is seen as an innate biological capacity.
- Broca's Area: Brain region critical for grammatically correct speech production.
- Framing Effects: Responses can vary based on how questions or scenarios are presented.
- Means-End Analysis: A problem-solving strategy of identifying goals and deducing steps to achieve them.
Additional Insights
- Memory Misattribution: Eyewitness errors often stem from the misattribution of memories.
- Motivational States: People's beliefs, such as alcohol expectancy, can influence their reactions in social situations.
- Hypnosis: Proven to have analgesic effects by altering perceptions of pain.
This collection of notes covers foundational concepts, research methodologies, neuroanatomy, cognitive psychology, and affective components of learning and memory in psychology.
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