Psychology Chapter on Thinking and Problem Solving

Thinking and Mental Images

• Thinking is a mental activity of processing information in the brain.
• Processing includes organizing, understanding and communicating information.
• Mental images are representations of objects or events with a picture-like quality.

Concepts

• Concepts are ideas representing categories of objects, events, or activities.
• Formal concepts are defined by specific rules or features.
• Natural concepts are formed from real-world experiences.
• A prototype is a concept that closely matches the characteristics of that concept.

Problem Solving

• Problem solving is the process of reaching a goal through thinking and actions.
• Decision making involves evaluating alternatives and choosing one.
• Trial and error is a method where solutions are tried until a successful one is found.
• Algorithms are step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct solution if one exists.
• Heuristics are educated guesses based on prior experiences to narrow down solutions.

Problem Solving Barriers

• Functional fixedness limits thinking about objects only in terms of their typical uses.
• Mental set is the tendency to persist in using problem-solving patterns that worked in the past.
• Confirmation bias is the tendency to only search for evidence that supports one’s beliefs.

Creativity

• Creativity is combining ideas or behaviors in new ways to solve problems.
• Convergent thinking aims for a single correct answer using logic and prior knowledge.
• Divergent thinking generates many different ideas from a single point.

Intelligence

• Intelligence refers to learning from experiences, acquiring knowledge, and adapting to new situations.
• Spearman's theory proposes a general intelligence factor ("g") and specific intelligence factors ("s").

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

• Gardner's theory identifies different types of intelligence, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist.

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

• Sternberg's theory proposes three types of intelligence: analytical (problem-solving), creative (dealing with new information), and practical ("street smarts").

IQ Tests

• Intelligence quotient (IQ) is a measure of intelligence calculated by dividing mental age by chronological age and multiplying by 100.
• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales yield an IQ score, allowing for comparisons across age groups.
• Wechsler Intelligence Tests provide verbal, performance, and overall intelligence scores.

Development of IQ Tests

• Reliability refers to how consistent test scores are when administered repeatedly to the same individuals.
• Validity indicates how accurately a test measures what it is intended to measure.
• Standardization involves administering a test to a large representative group to establish norms.
• Cultural bias may occur in tests if they are not culturally appropriate for all individuals.
• Cultural-free tests (CFIT) aim to minimize cultural bias.
• IQ tests are generally valid predictors of academic success and job performance.

Intellectual Disability

• Intellectual disability (formerly mental retardation) is characterized by deficits in mental ability and adaptive behavior, with an IQ below 70.
• Causes of intellectual disability include environmental deprivation, genetic disorders, and exposure to toxins.

Giftedness

• Giftedness refers to individuals with an IQ of 130 or above, representing the top 2% of the population.
• Terman's longitudinal study showed that gifted children generally grow up to be successful adults.
• Emotional intelligence involves being aware of and managing one's own emotions, self-motivation, empathy, and social skills.

Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence

• Intelligence is influenced by both heredity and environment.
• Stronger correlations are found between IQ scores as genetic relatedness increases.
• Heritability of IQ is estimated to be about 0.50.
• The Flynn effect refers to the gradual increase in IQ scores over time in modernized countries.
• The Bell Curve, a controversial book, argued that intelligence is largely determined by genetics.
• Stereotype threat is the anxiety and fear of confirming negative stereotypes about one's group.

Language

• Language is a system for combining symbols to create meaningful statements for communication.
• Grammar is the set of rules governing the structure and use of language.
• Phonemes are the basic units of sound in a language.
• Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language.
• Syntax is the system of rules for combining words and phrases into sentences.
• Semantics determines the meaning of words and sentences.
• Pragmatics involves the practical and social aspects of language use.

Language and Cognition

• The linguistic relativity hypothesis states that thought processes and concepts are influenced by language.
• Cognitive universalism suggests that concepts are universal and influence language development.

Animal Studies in Language

• Studies have demonstrated that animals can develop a basic form of language, including simple abstract concepts.

Explore the fascinating concepts of thinking, mental images, and problem-solving strategies in this quiz. Learn about how we process information, use concepts, and apply different methods for decision making and solving problems. Test your understanding of these psychological principles!