Psychology Chapter on Sleep Disorders
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Questions and Answers

What is REM behavior disorder characterized by?

  • A complete lack of dream recall
  • The inability to fall asleep
  • Acting out contents of dreams (correct)
  • Excessive daytime sleepiness

What typically describes insomnia?

  • Excessive sleepiness during the day
  • Dream recall issues
  • Inability to fall asleep or remain asleep (correct)
  • Physical reactions to sleep disorder

What occurs during tolerance in drug use?

  • Increased sensitivity to a drug's effects
  • Improved physical health with continued use
  • The need for larger quantities to achieve the same effect (correct)
  • Immediate withdrawal symptoms after the first use

What is a common effect of withdrawal from depressants like alcohol?

<p>Excessive brain activity leading to seizures (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of insomnia is caused by neurophysiological abnormalities?

<p>Idiopathic insomnia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a symptom of physical dependence on a drug?

<p>Emotional instability (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about hypnagogic hallucinations is true?

<p>They are often benign and harmless. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes parasomnias from dyssomnias?

<p>Parasomnias involve abnormal behaviors during sleep. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the defining features of an addiction?

<p>Repetitive behavior and inability to abstain despite consequences (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do depressants affect the nervous system?

<p>They slow down the activity of the nervous system. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major risk associated with combining depressants?

<p>Fatal level of nervous system inhibition (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does alcohol have at low doses?

<p>It dilutes blood vessels, providing a warm feeling. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might early humans have used fermented beverages?

<p>For safety against contaminated water. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does alcohol have at higher doses?

<p>Inhibition of higher brain functions leading to aggression (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do barbiturates primarily serve today?

<p>Prescribed primarily as anticonvulsants (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a reason for the decreased popularity of barbiturates?

<p>The introduction of benzodiazepines with lower risk of toxicity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the understanding that others have mental states different from one's own?

<p>Theory of Mind (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for processes that are inaccessible to our conscious awareness?

<p>Nonconscious (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of attention occurs when one is aware of one stimulus while ignoring others?

<p>Selective attention (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is it called when you fail to notice something unexpected because your attention is focused elsewhere?

<p>Inattentional blindness (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process requires full awareness, alertness, and concentration?

<p>Controlled processes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In multitasking, what term describes activities that require little awareness and minimal attention?

<p>Automatic processes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does change blindness refer to?

<p>Failure to notice changes in a visual scene (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes biological feedback?

<p>Information about biological processes to gain control (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential risk associated with the use of benzodiazepines?

<p>They have the potential to create dependence. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which stage of motivational interviewing does an individual start actively making preparations to change?

<p>Preparation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the drive-reduction theory, what is the purpose of driving behavior?

<p>To maintain homeostasis. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Yerkes-Dodson curve illustrate about performance and arousal?

<p>Moderate arousal often leads to optimal performance. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best exemplifies a primary drive according to the drive-reduction theory?

<p>The feeling of hunger when food is not present. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes instinct theory?

<p>Certain behaviors are automatic and triggered by stimuli. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the relapse stage of motivational interviewing?

<p>They return to previous unhealthy behaviors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does familiarity with a task influence the Yerkes-Dodson curve?

<p>Higher arousal is optimal for easier tasks. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes uninvolved parenting?

<p>Low support and low regulation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential consequence of uninvolved parenting by 12th grade?

<p>Higher rates of drinking and smoking (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does authoritative parenting have compared to authoritarian parenting?

<p>Lower internalizing problems (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which stage follows immediately after the zygote stage in prenatal development?

<p>Embryo (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic defines egocentrism in the preoperational stage of development?

<p>Children believe the world revolves around them. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the process of conservation in children?

<p>Understanding that two quantities can look different but still be equal. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one major consequence related to maternal age and pregnancy?

<p>Higher risk of mutation and genetic disorders (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Vygotsky’s theory in relation to child development?

<p>The role of social interaction in cognitive development. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which substance is associated with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)?

<p>Alcohol (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what age does the frontal lobe take approximately until fully developed?

<p>20-25 years (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which attachment style is characterized by a child who is visibly distressed when a caregiver leaves and is not easily comforted upon their return?

<p>Insecure-resistant attachment (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a teratogen?

<p>Caffeine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of authoritative parenting?

<p>High support with high regulation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Harlow’s monkey experiment, what was demonstrated regarding attachment?

<p>Emotional comfort is more significant than food. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the zone of proximal development, what is represented in the left circle?

<p>What a child cannot do, even with help. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which attachment style involves children showing little interest when their caregiver leaves or returns?

<p>Insecure-avoidant attachment (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primary neurotransmitter is boosted by depressants?

<p>GABA (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At high doses, what effect does alcohol primarily have on behavior?

<p>Promotes aggression and risky behaviors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best explains why alcohol's status as a depressant might seem confusing during social gatherings?

<p>It reduces behavioral inhibitions, making social interactions easier. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Theory of Mind (ToM) enable individuals to do?

<p>Interpret and predict the actions of others (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the common risks associated with combining barbiturates and alcohol?

<p>Increased risk of fatal overdose (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why did the popularity of barbiturates decrease when benzodiazepines were introduced?

<p>Benzodiazepines have a lower risk of toxicity and dependence. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of attention involves focusing on one source of information while ignoring others?

<p>Selective attention (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of alcohol consumption at very high doses?

<p>Potential coma or death due to respiratory suppression (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines controlled processes in attention?

<p>They require full awareness and concentration (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant characteristic of inattentional blindness?

<p>Not noticing unexpected stimuli while focused elsewhere (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What historical role might alcohol have played for early humans beyond social enjoyment?

<p>It acted as an antiseptic against contaminated water. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the main reason individuals might indulge in alcohol at social events despite its depressive qualities?

<p>To escape from reality and reduce inhibitions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does experience affect multitasking abilities?

<p>It contributes to the development of automaticity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term is used to describe processes that are not accessible to conscious awareness?

<p>Nonconscious (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does change blindness illustrate regarding human perception?

<p>Attention can restrict awareness of changes that occur (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of states of consciousness, what is biofeedback primarily used for?

<p>To gain control over biological processes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant risk associated with uninvolved parenting styles?

<p>Higher rates of substance abuse (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can contribute to the occurrence of uninvolved parenting?

<p>Parental illness or substance abuse (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which stage follows the zygote stage in prenatal development?

<p>Embryo (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What emotional response occurs first according to the Schachter-Singer theory?

<p>Physical arousal (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main consequence of maternal age on pregnancy?

<p>Higher chances of genetic disorders (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a secure attachment in infants?

<p>Use of caregiver as a base for exploration (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a known teratogen?

<p>Aspirin (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which stage in Piaget's theory focuses on object permanence?

<p>Sensorimotor stage (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What major development occurs during the fetus stage of prenatal growth?

<p>Development of fetal reflexes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of emotional contagion?

<p>Smiling because others around you are smiling (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what age does the frontal lobe typically reach full development?

<p>20-25 years (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the continuity approach in development emphasize?

<p>Gradual learning through development (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to altering existing schemas to incorporate new information in Piaget’s theory?

<p>Accommodation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect describes insecure attachment in a child?

<p>Being easily comforted by anyone (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What emotional expression is typically NOT considered a universal emotion?

<p>Anxiety (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does arousal typically affect performance on difficult tasks?

<p>Lower levels of arousal enhance focus on the task. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which need should be met first according to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs?

<p>Physiological needs. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the Self-Determination Theory?

<p>It highlights the need for meeting internal motivations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component is NOT involved in the biological processes of emotions?

<p>Hypothalamus. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, how do we experience emotions?

<p>Physical responses trigger emotions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do emotions encourage us to do in response to rewards?

<p>Persist in actions that lead to rewards. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, which statement best reflects its principle?

<p>Physical response and emotional feeling occur simultaneously. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily drives extrinsic motivation?

<p>Achieving an external goal or reward. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes the authoritarian parenting style from the authoritative style?

<p>Low support with high regulation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common outcome for children raised in authoritarian households?

<p>More internalizing symptoms like depression (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following behaviors is often associated with indulgent or permissive parenting?

<p>High levels of alcohol and cigarette use in children (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cross-cultural research indicates that the impact of authoritarian parenting is viewed how across different cultures?

<p>Similarly by children regardless of cultural background (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of the indulgent parenting style?

<p>Warm and loving demeanor but low regulation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What behavioral trend is less common in children raised by authoritarian parents compared to those raised by authoritative parents?

<p>Showing less rebelliousness (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which parenting style is likely to lead to children who regularly receive little monitoring?

<p>Indulgent (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an effect of high levels of regulation in authoritarian parenting?

<p>Development of compliant and respectful children (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Theory of Mind (ToM)

The ability to understand others have different thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and perspectives than your own.

Consciousness

Awareness of internal and external sensations.

Nonconscious

Mental processes inaccessible to conscious awareness.

Selective Attention

Focusing on one thing while ignoring others.

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Divided Attention

Attending to multiple tasks at once.

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Inattentional Blindness

Failing to notice something unexpected while focusing on other tasks.

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Change Blindness

Failing to notice obvious changes in your surroundings.

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Controlled Processes

Activities requiring focus and concentration.

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REM Behavior Disorder

A sleep disorder where people act out their dreams during REM sleep, unlike typical REM sleep paralysis.

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Insomnia

Inability to fall asleep or stay asleep.

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Tolerance (drug)

A phenomenon where the effects of a drug lessen over time with constant use, or where a person needs more of the drug to get the same effect.

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Withdrawal (drug)

Unpleasant physical and mental symptoms a person experiences when they stop using a drug they are dependent on.

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Addiction

Compulsive use of a substance or activity despite negative consequences.

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Physical Dependence (addiction)

Addiction characterized by tolerance and withdrawal symptoms due to the body's physical adaptation to the substance.

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Agonist drug

A drug that increases the effect of a neurotransmitter, often given when a person is not producing enough of a certain neurochemical.

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Drug Dependence

A state of needing a substance (drug) to function correctly or avoid withdrawal symptoms.

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Addiction defining features

Compulsive drug use or activity repetition, inability to abstain despite negative consequences.

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Depressant effect

Slows down nervous system activity, reducing alertness & anxiety.

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GABA neurotransmitter

Inhibitory neurotransmitter affected by depressants.

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Alcohol's party effect

Low doses: Relaxation, reduced inhibitions. High doses: Aggression, poor coordination.

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Alcohol's history

Used since prehistory, potentially for water purification.

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Barbiturates use

Once widely used as sedatives and anti-anxiety meds, now mostly for anti-seizure.

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Barbiturates and alcohol

Powerful interactions possible, leading to potentially fatal overdoses.

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Benzodiazepines

Anti-anxiety medications with lower risk of toxicity and dependence compared to barbiturates.

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Motivational Interviewing

A therapeutic approach that helps individuals find intrinsic motivation to make positive changes, often related to addiction recovery or behavioral modifications.

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Pre-contemplation Stage

The first stage of change where a person is unaware or unwilling to acknowledge a problem or the need for change.

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Drive-Reduction Theory

A theory of motivation that suggests that organisms are driven by a need to maintain internal balance (homeostasis) by reducing drives, like hunger, thirst, or cold.

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Primary Drives

Basic biological needs that are essential for survival, such as hunger, thirst, and sleep.

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Secondary Drives

Learned or social drives motivated by goals, such as achievement, affiliation, and social recognition.

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Yerkes-Dodson Curve

This curve describes the relationship between arousal and performance, suggesting that moderate levels of arousal lead to optimal performance.

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Arousal and Performance

The level of arousal can affect how well we perform on tasks, with moderate arousal often leading to optimal performance, while too much or too little arousal can negatively impact performance.

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Egocentrism (Preoperational)

A child's inability to understand that others have different perspectives and viewpoints. They think the world revolves around them.

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Conservation (Preoperational)

The inability to understand that the amount of a substance remains the same even if its appearance changes (e.g., pouring liquid into different shaped containers).

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Animism (Preoperational)

Attributing human-like qualities or feelings to inanimate objects.

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Concrete Operations (Ages 6-12)

The ability to think logically about concrete objects and events. Children in this stage can understand conservation and perform simple mathematical operations.

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Formal Operations (After Age 12)

The ability to think abstractly, hypothetically, and systematically. This stage allows for more complex reasoning and problem-solving.

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Harlow's Monkey Experiment

A study showing that infant monkeys prefer comfort and security over basic needs (food) when choosing an attachment figure.

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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable person.

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Secure Attachment

A healthy bond where a child feels comfortable exploring their environment knowing their caregiver is a safe base.

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Uninvolved Parenting

A parenting style characterized by low support and low regulation, where parents are detached and minimally involved in their children's lives.

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Causes of Uninvolved Parenting

Situations like illness, marital discord, mental health issues, or substance abuse in the parents can lead to them being unable to fulfill their parental responsibilities.

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Consequences of Uninvolved Parenting

Children of uninvolved parents often display higher rates of negative behaviors, such as substance abuse and antisocial tendencies.

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Authoritarian Parenting

A parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness, where parents expect obedience and exert strict control.

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Authoritative Parenting

A parenting style characterized by high demands and high responsiveness, where parents set clear rules and expectations, but also encourage open communication and understanding.

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Internalizing Problems

Emotional and psychological difficulties that manifest inwardly, such as depression, anxiety, or withdrawal.

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Teratogens

Substances or environmental factors that can cause birth defects or developmental problems in a fetus.

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Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)

A range of disorders that can occur in babies exposed to alcohol during pregnancy, affecting physical, mental, and behavioral development.

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Barbiturates: Uses & Risks

Once widely used as anti-anxiety drugs and sedatives, but safer options exist. Now primarily used as anti-seizure medications. Can interact dangerously with alcohol, leading to overdose.

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Benzodiazepines: Safer alternative

Anti-anxiety medications that are safer than barbiturates, having lower toxicity and dependence risks.

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Combined depressants: Fatal risk

Mixing different depressants, like alcohol and barbiturates, can lead to a dangerous and potentially fatal overdose. All depressants act on the GABA receptor, so combining them intensifies the depressant effect.

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Arousal and Difficult Tasks

For complex or challenging tasks, optimal performance often occurs with a lower level of arousal, allowing for better focus and concentration.

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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

This theory suggests that basic needs (like hunger and thirst) must be met before higher-level needs (like self-actualization) can be fulfilled.

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What is Incentive Theory?

Behavior is motivated by external stimuli that offer either rewards (positive incentives) or punishments (negative incentives).

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Operant Conditioning & Motivation

Operant conditioning, while often linked to rewards and punishments, can also be influenced by biological factors like hunger, and social or cognitive factors.

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Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation comes from within – doing something for the pleasure and satisfaction of it. Extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards like praise or money.

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Amygdala and Emotions

The amygdala, a brain structure, plays a key role in experiencing and processing emotions, especially during adolescence when it develops significantly.

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Emotions: Universal Communication

Emotions are shared across cultures and serve as a way to communicate feelings and intentions, often through facial expressions and body language.

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James-Lange Theory of Emotion

This theory proposes that emotions arise from our physiological response to a stimulus. We feel sad because we cry; we feel scared because our heart races.

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Schachter-Singer Theory

This theory suggests that emotions arise from a two-step process: first, physiological arousal occurs, and then you interpret the arousal based on your environment to label the emotion.

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Universal Emotions

Emotions that are expressed and recognized across cultures, often with distinct facial expressions.

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Emotional Contagion

The rapid spread of emotions from one person to another, often through nonverbal cues.

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Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight.

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Schemas

Mental frameworks or categories that organize information and help us understand the world.

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Accommodation (Schemas)

Adjusting existing schemas to fit new information or experiences.

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Indulgent Parenting

A parenting style characterized by high support but low regulation. Parents are very warm and loving but avoid setting limits or enforcing rules.

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Parenting Styles: Impact on Children

Different parenting styles have varying impacts on children's development. Authoritative parenting is associated with positive outcomes, while authoritarian and indulgent styles can lead to challenges.

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Externalizing Behaviors

Behaviors that are acted out and directed towards others, such as aggression, delinquency, or substance abuse.

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Authoritarian Parenting: Outcomes

Children raised by authoritarian parents tend to be compliant but may have lower self-esteem and experience internalizing problems like depression.

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Indulgent Parenting: Outcomes

Children raised by indulgent parents often lack self-control and may engage in riskier behaviors, such as substance abuse.

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FASD

A range of disorders that can occur in babies exposed to alcohol during pregnancy, affecting physical, mental, and behavioral development.

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Study Notes

States of Consciousness

  • Theory of Mind (ToM) is the ability to understand others have different thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives.
  • Consciousness is awareness of sensations (internal and external).
  • Nonconscious processes are inaccessible to awareness, controlling biological functions.
  • Biofeedback involves receiving information about biological processes to control them.
  • Preconscious thoughts are accessible but not currently in awareness.
  • Selective attention focuses on one stimulus while ignoring others.
  • Divided attention involves attending to multiple tasks simultaneously.
  • Automaticity improves multitasking ability.
  • Inattentional blindness is failing to notice unexpected stimuli while focused on other tasks.
  • Change blindness is failing to notice changes right in front of you while focusing.
  • Controlled processes require full awareness, affecting other tasks.
  • Automatic processes require minimal awareness and don't affect other tasks.
  • Altered states of consciousness differ from normal state (meditation, drugs, hypnosis, sleep deprivation.)

Sleep

  • Sleep is composed of five identifiable stages with varied levels of awareness and physiological arousal.
  • Circadian rhythms are regular biological cycles based on body temperature, alertness, hormones, and other biological processes impacting our sleep-wake cycles.

Sleep stages

  • Stage I is light sleep characterized by theta waves.
  • Stage II is characterized by sleep spindles (lasts 20 minutes).
  • Stages III and IV are slow-wave sleep with large delta waves, signifying deep sleep; growth hormone released during this stage.
  • REM (rapid eye movement) sleep is associated with dreaming.

Sleep Disorders

  • REM behavior disorder: acting out dreams while asleep.
  • Insomnia: difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.
  • Hypersomnia: excessive sleepiness.
  • Parasomnias: unusual behaviors during sleep (sleepwalking, night terrors, bedwetting).
  • Rapid Eye Movement Disorder (REM): person acts out their dreams, potentially causing harm.

Drugs and Dependence

  • Agonists activate receptors.
  • Antagonists block receptor activation.
  • Tolerance decreases drug effect with continued use.
  • Withdrawal is the negative outcome from stopping drug use.
  • Addiction involves physical or psychological dependence on a substance or activity.

Motivation and Emotion

  • Motivational interviewing is a psychological intervention to help someone become motivated to change.
  • Drive-reduction theory proposes that our needs cause us to perform actions that satisfy those needs to achieve homeostasis.
  • Instinct theory suggests that behaviors are innate and unlearned, triggered by specific stimuli.
  • Maslow's hierarchy of needs prioritizes physiological needs before psychological needs.
  • Incentive theory focuses on external stimuli that motivate behavior to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
  • Operant conditioning principles affect behaviors based on reward and punishment.
  • Self-determination theory proposes that humans inherently have a desire to be self-determined and autonomous.

Development

  • Continuity versus discontinuity approach: the former sees development as a gradual process, while the latter sees it as a series of distinct stages.
  • Cognitive development stages (Piaget): sensorimotor (birth-2 years), preoperational (2-7 years), concrete operational (7-11 years), formal operational (11+ years).
  • Attachment styles (e.g., secure, insecure-resistant, insecure-avoidant, disorganized).
  • Parenting styles (e.g., authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved).
  • Harlow's monkey experiment studied attachments in infant rhesus monkeys.
  • Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the role of social interaction in cognitive development.
  • Piaget's stage theory describes development in distinct stages, impacting how children learn and interact with the world.
  • The Yerkes-Dodson law describes the relationship between arousal and performance: optimal performance occurs at moderate arousal levels.
  • Maslow's hierarchy of needs prioritizes psychological needs (safety, belonging, esteem) and self-actualization needs in motivation and development.
  • Incentive theory emphasizes external rewards and stimuli driving behaviors.
  • Operant conditioning influences behavior through rewards and punishments.

Emotion

  • Emotions are responses to rewards and punishments that accompany changes in thoughts, feelings, facial expressions, and physiology.
  • Emotions are universal and serve as communication tools.

Adolescent Development

  • Imaginary audience: the belief that other people are constantly attentive to one's appearance.
  • Personal fable: the belief that one's experiences and feelings are unique and exceptional.
  • Moral reasoning stages: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.
  • Erikson's stages of psychosocial development (late adulthood).
  • Gender perspective (Gilligan).
  • Common adolescent development stages like imaginary audience and personal fable relate to how developing teenagers view themselves and their social world.

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