Psychology Chapter on Memory Theories

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Questions and Answers

What is the term used for the effect of misleading information on memory recall?

Decaying effect

Misinformation effect (correct)

Flashbulb effect

Interference effect

Which type of memory is primarily responsible for storing general knowledge, such as facts and concepts?

Semantic memory (correct)

Episodic memory

Declarative memory

Procedural memory

Which memory system is involved in the recollection of personal experiences and specific events?

Declarative memory

Semantics

Episodic memory (correct)

Procedural memory

What issue relates to the accuracy of information recovered from memory?

Distortion Signup and view all the answers

In the context of memory systems, what does procedural memory refer to?

Memory for skills and actions Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of sensory memory?

It lasts for milliseconds or seconds. Signup and view all the answers

Which model of memory storage was proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin in the 1970s?

Multi-Store Model Signup and view all the answers

What is the duration limit for short-term memory (STM)?

20-30 seconds Signup and view all the answers

What does Miller’s Law suggest about short-term memory capacity?

It can hold around 7±2 units of information. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes long-term memory (LTM)?

It has an unlimited capacity and can last indefinitely. Signup and view all the answers

Which memory type is often referred to as 'working memory'?

Short-Term Memory Signup and view all the answers

How does rehearsal affect short-term memory?

It can extend the duration of information retention. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of memory models, what is meant by the term 'echo' in sensory memory?

A temporary representation of sensory information. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Serial-Position effect indicate about information recall?

Better recall for information at the start and end compared to the middle. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is least likely to impact retrieval according to the given content?

Personal relevance of the information Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for when new information impairs retention of old information?

Retroactive interference Signup and view all the answers

Which retrieval method is considered the most challenging?

Recall Signup and view all the answers

What is pseudo-forgetting?

Inability to retrieve information caused by a lack of attention during encoding. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the 'Tip-of-the-tongue' phenomenon?

It occurs when one can almost but not quite retrieve a memory. Signup and view all the answers

What role does retrieval context play in memory recall?

Retrieval is best when the contextual cues are similar to those present during encoding. Signup and view all the answers

Ebbinghaus's research on forgetting emphasized which key idea?

Most forgetting happens immediately following memorization. Signup and view all the answers

What type of amnesia involves the inability to remember events that occurred before the onset of the disorder?

Retrograde amnesia Signup and view all the answers

Which amnesia type features difficulties in acquiring new information and remembering day-to-day events?

Anterograde amnesia Signup and view all the answers

In the case of Clive Wearing, which type of amnesia is primarily demonstrated based on his symptoms?

Anterograde amnesia Signup and view all the answers

What is the implication of Ribot’s law in memory loss?

Recent memories are more likely to be lost than older ones Signup and view all the answers

What therapeutic application can help with memory issues in patients?

Reminiscence therapy Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT typically affect recall in patients?

Language proficiency Signup and view all the answers

Which disorder is characterized by severe memory loss as a result of long-term alcoholism?

Korsakoff’s syndrome Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory remains relatively intact in an Alzheimer’s patient during the initial stages of the disease?

Procedural memory Signup and view all the answers

What is the best way to present information to maximize working memory capacity?

Chunk information into explicit categories Signup and view all the answers

What effect explains the importance of providing the most crucial information early in the presentation?

Primacy and recency effect Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following strategies is most effective for transferring information from working memory to long-term memory?

Rehearsing the information repeatedly Signup and view all the answers

What method is recommended to enhance the recall of information?

Providing recall cues such as diagrams or visuals Signup and view all the answers

What is a common strategy to avoid shallow processing of information?

Elaborating on the information and drawing diagrams Signup and view all the answers

Which approach would NOT be effective in maximizing your encoding capacity?

Engaging in mass practice Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following does NOT facilitate the connection of new information to existing knowledge?

Ignoring prior knowledge during learning Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory failure would be associated with not being able to remember an important detail during a conversation?

Working memory failure Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Encoding, storage, and retrieval

Memory is the process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.
Computers have influenced memory theories.
Information processing model is a model of memory inspired by computer science.

Atkinson & Shiffrin's Multi-Store Model

The multi-store model is the most influential theory of memory.
There are three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
They are not real structures in the brain but rather metaphors.

Sensory Memory

Auditory, tactile, or visual information lasts for milliseconds or seconds.
Sensory memory is a fleeting echo or afterimage of the stimulus.
Clive Wearing was unable to form new sensory memories.

Short-Term Memory

Short-term memory has a limited capacity of about 7 ± 2 units of information.
New information can displace old information in short-term memory – this is known as interference.
Short-term memory has a limited duration of about 20 – 30 seconds.
Rehearsal extends the duration of information in short-term memory.
Clive Wearing's working memory was intact.

Working Memory

Working memory is not just a rehearsal buffer and doesn’t store only sensory information.
Working memory is a more complex system that holds and manipulates information.

Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory has unlimited capacity and indefinite duration.
There's debate regarding the permanence of long-term memory as evidence suggests loss over time due to decay, interference, or retrieval failure.
Long-term memory is organised into logical frameworks: declarative and procedural memory.
Declarative memory is further broken down into semantic and episodic memory.
Semantic memory is general knowledge, while episodic memory is dated recollections of personal experiences.
Procedural memory is related to action, skills, and conditioned responses.
Clive Wearing's long-term memory was highly affected, leading to anterograde amnesia.

Reasons for forgetting

There are several reasons why we forget information:
- Ineffective encoding: Information isn't encoded due to lack of attention.
- Decay: Memory fades over time due to physiological changes, but has limited empirical support.
- Interference: Retrieval is hindered by other information.
- Retrieval failure: Information is present in memory but cannot be accessed due to lack of cues.
- Motivated forgetting: Unpleasant, painful, or embarrassing memories are suppressed.

Retrieval

Retrieval is the process of accessing information from memory.
It is not always accurate and can be influenced by unrelated events.
The misinformation effect occurs when misleading information biases recall.
Factors that influence retrieval:
- Order of encoding: The serial position effect suggests better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list.
- Time: Forgetting is most rapid immediately after learning.
- Meaningfulness: Meaningful information is better recalled.
- Connectedness: Relating new information to existing knowledge enhances recall.
- Retrieval cues: Hints or context cues facilitate retrieval.
- Retrieval methods: Recall, recognition, relearning, and reconstruction vary in difficulty and accuracy.

Clinical Disorders of Memory

Amnesia is a partial or total memory loss.
- Retrograde amnesia: Inability to recall information prior to the onset.
- Anterograde amnesia: Inability to form new memories.
- Post-traumatic amnesia: Combination of retrograde and anterograde amnesia.
Causes of amnesia: Brain injury, drugs, encephalitis, ECT, alcoholism, lack of stimulation, severe emotional trauma, and Alzheimer's disease.
Memory loss in Alzheimer's disease:
- Working memory: Intact initially, but increased sensitivity to distraction.
- Long-term memory:
  - Procedural memory relatively intact.
  - Declarative memory:
    - Semantic: Difficulty with language and conceptual information.
    - Episodic: Early signs and symptoms include forgetfulness and missed appointments.

Practical Implications - Professional

Know the factors that affect recall to better understand patient memory issues.
Understand the importance of recall for patient adherence to treatment and medical information.
Facilitate patient recall by:
- Minimising interference and distractions.
- Presenting information in chunks and categories.
- Prioritising important information and summarising at the end.
- Repeating key information to encourage rehearsal and transferring information to long-term memory.
- Making information meaningful by providing rationales, specific examples, and visual aids.
- Creating connections to patients' existing knowledge.
- Providing recall cues (diagrams, information leaflets).

Practical Implications - Personal

Maximise your encoding capacity by minimising interference and maximising attention.
Be mindful of working memory capacity.
Space learning and avoid mass practice to promote consolidation.
Avoid shallow processing and use techniques for deep processing: elaborate, draw diagrams, provide examples, explain concepts to others, and relate information to existing knowledge.
Use techniques to aid recall: reconstruction, reinstating context, chunking information, and generating recall cues.

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Description

Explore the fascinating theories of memory processing, including the influential Atkinson & Shiffrin's Multi-Store Model. This quiz delves into sensory memory, short-term memory, and cognitive models inspired by computer science. Test your understanding of how we encode, store, and retrieve information!