Psychology Chapter on Memory

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Questions and Answers

The capacity and duration of sensory memory is generally very ______.

limited

Baddeley’s model of working memory includes the central executive and two slave systems: the phonological loop and the ______.

visuospatial sketchpad

Patients with retrograde amnesia often have difficulty recalling memories that were formed before their ______.

injury

The testing effect demonstrates that ______ can enhance long-term retention of information.

<p>testing</p> Signup and view all the answers

One form of implicit memory is ______, which involves skills and actions learned through practice.

<p>procedural</p> Signup and view all the answers

The serial position effect indicates that items at the beginning and end of a list are more likely to be ______.

<p>remembered</p> Signup and view all the answers

Ebbinghaus conducted early studies on ______, exploring how information is forgotten over time.

<p>forgetting</p> Signup and view all the answers

The phenomenon where memory retrieval is influenced by the emotional or physical state at the time of encoding is known as ______.

<p>state-dependent memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

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Study Notes

Memory

  • Memory: The ability to store and retrieve information.
  • Sensory Memory: Briefly holds sensory information (visual, auditory, etc.).
    • Capacity: Large
    • Duration: Very short (milliseconds to seconds)
    • Sperling's Partial Report Method: Demonstrated the existence of sensory memory by testing participants' ability to recall a portion of a briefly presented array of letters.
  • Short-Term Memory: Holds information for a short period of time (seconds to minutes).
    • Capacity: Limited (typically around 7 items, +/- 2)
    • Duration: Short (seconds to minutes)
    • Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: Proposed a three-stage model of memory - sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
  • Working Memory: A more active system that manipulates and processes information from short-term memory.
    • Baddeley's Working Memory Model: Proposed a working memory system with different components, including:
      • Phonological Loop: Processes verbal and auditory information.
      • Visuospatial Sketchpad: Processes visual and spatial information.
      • Central Executive: Controls attention and integrates information from other components.
    • Factors Affecting Working Memory:
      • Phonological Similarity Effect: Words that sound similar are harder to recall than words that sound different.
      • Word Length Effect: Shorter words are easier to recall than longer words.
      • Articulatory Suppression: Reciting irrelevant words disrupts the ability to hold information in the phonological loop.

Long-Term Memory

  • Long-Term Memory: Stores information relatively permanently (minutes to years).
    • Capacity: Essentially unlimited.
    • Duration: Long-lasting (minutes to years)
  • Brain Stimulation and Memory:
    • Penfield's Work: During brain surgery, electric stimulation of specific brain regions could evoke memories in patients.
  • Types of Long-Term Memory:
    • Explicit Memory: (Conscious memory)
      • Semantic Memory: General knowledge about the world (facts, concepts).
      • Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and events.
      • Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and habits.
    • Implicit Memory: (Unconscious memory)
      • Priming: Recent exposure to a stimulus makes it easier to process the same or similar stimulus later.
      • Conditioning: Learning associations between stimuli and responses.
  • Semanticization of LTM: The gradual loss of detailed episodic information, leaving only the semantic gist of the memory.
  • Propaganda Effect: Increased familiarity with a statement leads to a greater likelihood of believing it.
  • Neural Structures and Memory:
    • Explicit Memory: Hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex.
    • Implicit Memory: Basal ganglia, cerebellum, and motor cortex.
  • Tests of Implicit and Explicit Memory:
    • Explicit Memory Tests: Recall and recognition tasks.
    • Implicit Memory Tests: Word-stem completion, perceptual identification tasks.
  • Amnesia: Loss of memory.
    • Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memories from before the onset of amnesia.
    • Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia.
    • **Patient H.M., Clive Wearing, E.P.: ** Famous cases of amnesia that have provided critical insights into memory systems.
    • Functions Spared in Amnesia: Often, implicit memory, procedural memory, and semantic memory remain intact.
  • Memory Processes:
    • Encoding: Getting information into memory.
      • Levels of Processing Theory: Deeper processing (meaningful processing) leads to better memory.
      • Encoding Specificity Principle: Retrieval cues are more effective if they relate to the way in which information was encoded.
      • Ebbinghaus's Study: Demonstrated the forgetting curve, showing that memory decays over time.
    • Consolidation: Making memories more stable and enduring.
      • Synaptic Consolidation: Strengthening of synaptic connections involved in the memory.
      • Systems Consolidation: Transfer of memories from the hippocampus to other brain regions for long-term storage.
        • Standard Model: The hippocampus is initially critical for consolidation, but its role diminishes over time.
        • Multiple Trace Model: The hippocampus is always involved in retrieving episodic memories.
    • Retrieval: Accessing and retrieving information from memory.
      • Hebbian Learning: Neurons that fire together wire together.
      • Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): A persistent strengthening of synapses due to repeated stimulation.
      • Neurotransmitters and Receptors: Glutamate and NMDA receptors play crucial roles in learning and memory.
      • Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that help retrieve information from memory.
      • Mood and State-Dependent Retrieval: Memory retrieval is better if the internal state (e.g., mood, intoxication) at retrieval matches the state at encoding.

Other Memory Concepts

  • Serial Position Effect: The tendency to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than items in the middle.
  • Ways to Enhance Encoding:
    • Rehearsal: Repeating information.
    • Generation Effect: Generating information yourself, rather than passively receiving it, leads to better memory.
    • Elaboration: Adding meaning and context to information.
  • Factors Affecting Encoding and Retrieval:
    • Attention: Focused attention enhances encoding.
    • Motivation: High motivation leads to better encoding.
    • Emotions: Strong emotions can enhance or impair memory.
    • Sleep: Consolidation occurs during sleep.
  • Remember/Know Procedure: A test of memory that asks participants to judge whether they have encountered a specific item before (remember) or simply feel familiar with it (know).
  • Recall vs. Recognition:
    • Recall: Retrieving information without any cues.
    • Recognition: Identifying previously encountered information.
  • Testing Effect: Repeatedly testing oneself on material leads to better long-term memory.

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