Psychology Chapter on Learning and Associationism
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Questions and Answers

What is the definition of learning as presented?

  • A reflexive response to external stimuli
  • An innate change in an organism’s DNA
  • A temporary change in behavior due to experience
  • A relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience (correct)

Which principle suggests that ideas and memories are linked through frequent experience?

  • Generalization
  • Associationism
  • Reinforcement
  • Contiguity (correct)

In classical conditioning, what is the term for the initial learning stage where an association is formed between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus?

  • Reinforcement
  • Acquisition (correct)
  • Extinction
  • Generalization

During Pavlov's experiments, what happens when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus?

<p>It becomes a conditioned response (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What must typically occur for conditioning to happen in classical conditioning?

<p>The neutral stimulus must precede the unconditioned stimulus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes associative learning?

<p>Learning to associate one stimulus with another stimulus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the unconditioned stimulus lead to in Pavlov's experiments?

<p>A conditioned response (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the process called when a conditioned response decreases and ultimately ceases due to the absence of the conditioned stimulus?

<p>Extinction (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a stimulus in the context of learning?

<p>Any object, event, or experience causing a response (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

After a period without exposure to the conditioned stimulus, the original conditioned response can reappear. What is this phenomenon known as?

<p>Spontaneous Recovery (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the ability to distinguish between stimuli that signal the unconditioned stimulus and those that do not?

<p>Stimulus Discrimination (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to later behaviorists, what significantly influences how animals learn from stimuli?

<p>Biological Constraints (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Garcia's research demonstrate about the timing between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus?

<p>They can be hours apart and still lead to conditioning. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of learning did early behaviorists generally overlook according to later research?

<p>Cognitive Processes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus?

<p>Stimulus Generalization (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key factor did both Pavlov and Watson underestimate in their study of psychology?

<p>Cognitive Processes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning?

<p>Operant conditioning involves behaviors that operate on the environment. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately represents the Law of Effect?

<p>Responses that are reinforced tend to be repeated. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which scenario is shaping applied effectively?

<p>Gradually guiding an animal's actions toward a complex target behavior. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary reinforcer?

<p>An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the operant chamber, or Skinner box, function?

<p>It requires an animal to manipulate a bar or key to obtain a reinforcer. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines a conditioned reinforcer?

<p>A stimulus that reinforces behavior through prior associations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What consistent principle is illustrated by Skinner's work in operant conditioning?

<p>Reinforcement increases the likelihood of repeated behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of reinforcement in operant conditioning?

<p>To strengthen the behavior that follows it. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are cognitive maps in the context of learning?

<p>Mental representations of the layout of an environment (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is latent learning?

<p>Learning that occurs without any reinforcement but becomes visible with motivation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does intrinsic motivation differ from extrinsic motivation?

<p>Intrinsic motivation refers to performing behavior for its own sake, while extrinsic is driven by rewards or punishments (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What concept did Breland and Breland demonstrate in their research on animal behavior?

<p>Biological predispositions influence learning and behavior (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a key argument made by Skinner regarding behavior?

<p>External influences predominantly shape behaviors rather than internal emotions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which application of operant conditioning is mentioned in relation to workplace productivity?

<p>Allowing employees to share profits and participate in ownership (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What method is suggested to reinforce good behavior in children?

<p>Reinforcing good behavior while ignoring unwanted behavior (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do higher animals, including humans, typically learn according to observational learning theories?

<p>Through imitation and observation of others (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an immediate reinforcer?

<p>A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which schedule of reinforcement is characterized by reinforcing a response only after a certain number of responses?

<p>Fixed-ratio schedule (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential negative effect of punishment?

<p>Creates unwanted fears (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of reinforcement schedule produces steady and consistent responses over time?

<p>Variable-interval schedule (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor can contribute to greater resistance to extinction in the context of reinforcement?

<p>Partial reinforcement (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a delayed reinforcer typically require from an individual?

<p>Consistent effort and patience (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might Skinner's understanding of behavior be critiqued?

<p>He believed cognitive processes were irrelevant (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can occur when punishment is used in behavior modification?

<p>It can cause aggression toward the punisher (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do mirror neurons play in observational learning?

<p>They activate during observational learning. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do prosocial models have on behavior according to observational learning theories?

<p>They can lead to positive, helpful behaviors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What findings were indicated by Bandura's Bobo doll study?

<p>Children learn through imitation of rewarded behaviors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What outcome is associated with children who are exposed to violent media, according to the research mentioned?

<p>Increased expression of aggression. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be a consequence of observing antisocial models in the environment?

<p>Development of antisocial behaviors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what age does observational learning reportedly begin according to the content?

<p>Around 14 months. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does modeling violence in media impact children's behavior?

<p>It can desensitize children to real-life violence. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the findings regarding observational learning from Gentile et al. (2004)?

<p>Children exposed to violent media tend to mimic aggressive behaviors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

Associative Learning

Learning to connect one stimulus or response with another.

Classical Conditioning

Learning to associate one stimulus with another; a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus, triggering a learned response.

Stimulus

An object, event, or experience that causes a response.

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Acquisition (Classical Conditioning)

The initial learning stage where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

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Neutral Stimulus (NS):

A stimulus that initially does not elicit a response.

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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

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Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

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Extinction (in classical conditioning)

The decrease and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response (CR) when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus (US).

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Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR) after a period of rest.

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Stimulus generalization

Responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS), although not identical, with a similar, though often weaker, conditioned response (CR).

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Stimulus discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and other similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (US).

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Cognitive processes in learning

Animals learn the predictability of a stimulus; they develop expectations or awareness of a stimulus.

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Biological predispositions in learning

Learning is influenced by an animal's biology; not all learning is the same for all animals. Specific types of learning pairings are easier than others.

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Taste aversion learning

A type of learning involving associating a taste with illness, even if the illness occurs hours after consuming the tasted food.

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Pavlov's contribution to psychology

Isolation of basic behaviors from complex ones using objective methods.

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Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences; behaviors are strengthened or weakened depending on the outcome.

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Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated; behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely.

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Shaping

Gradually teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired action.

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Operant Chamber

A controlled environment used to study operant conditioning, featuring a lever or key that animals can manipulate for rewards.

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Primary Reinforcer

A naturally rewarding stimulus, such as food or water, satisfying a basic need.

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Conditioned Reinforcer

A learned reinforcer that gets its power through association with a primary reinforcer, like a clicker sound paired with food.

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Reinforcement

Any event that strengthens the frequency of a behavior it follows

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Immediate Reinforcer

A reward that occurs immediately after a behavior.

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Delayed Reinforcer

A reward that is given some time after a behavior.

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Continuous Reinforcement

Every instance of the desired behavior is rewarded.

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Partial Reinforcement

Rewarding the desired behavior only sometimes.

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Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Reward is given after a specific number of desired behaviors.

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Variable-Ratio Schedule

Reward is given after a random number of desired behaviors.

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Fixed-Interval Schedule

Reward is given after a specific amount of time has passed.

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Variable-Interval Schedule

Reward is given after a random amount of time has passed.

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Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of the layout of an environment, like a maze, that are formed through learning.

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Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but isn't apparent until an incentive is present to demonstrate it.

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Intrinsic Motivation

Doing something for its own sake, purely because you enjoy it.

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Extrinsic Motivation

Doing something because of promised rewards or threats of punishment.

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Biological Predisposition

Innate tendencies of organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive to their survival.

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Skinner's Legacy

Skinner believed behaviors are shaped by external influences, not internal thoughts.

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Teaching Machines (Operant Conditioning)

Tools that shape learning in small steps and offer reinforcement for correct responses.

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Operant Conditioning In Real Life

Reinforcement and punishment are used in many settings to change behavior.

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Mirror Neurons

Specialized brain cells that fire both when we perform an action AND when we observe someone else performing the same action. They play a key role in understanding and imitating others.

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Observational Learning

Learning by watching and imitating others. We learn new behaviors, skills, and attitudes by observing models, even without direct reinforcement.

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Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

A classic study demonstrating observational learning. Children who observed adults behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll were more likely to also act aggressively towards it.

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Prosocial Learning

Observational learning that results in positive, helpful, and constructive behaviors. We learn by observing good role models.

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Antisocial Learning

Observational learning that leads to negative, harmful, and destructive behaviors. We learn by observing negative role models.

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Modeling Violence in Media

Research shows that excessive exposure to violent media, like TV or video games, can increase aggressive behavior in individuals, particularly children.

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Imitation Onset

The earliest age at which infants are able to learn through imitation. Studies show that babies as young as 14 months can imitate actions they see on TV.

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How Can We Learn From Observation?

Observational learning is a powerful tool for learning; we can learn both positive and negative behaviors by watching others. Understanding how it works helps us become more mindful about what we watch and who we imitate.

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Study Notes

Learning Definition

  • Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.
  • Learning is more adaptable than genetically-programmed behaviors (like those of Chinook salmon).

How Do We Learn?

  • We learn through association, connecting events that occur in a sequence.
  • Aristotle (2000 years ago) and Locke and Hume (200 years ago) identified this principle.

Associationism

  • Learning that specific events occur together.
  • Events can be two stimuli or a response and its consequence.
  • Learning involves forming associations based on contiguity (closeness in time of events).
  • This means ideas, memories, and experiences are connected when frequently occurring together.

Associative Learning (Stimulus-Stimulus)

  • Learning to link one stimulus to another.
  • Example: Sea snails associate a splash with a tail shock.

Associative Learning (Stimulus-Response)

  • Learning to link a response with a consequence.
  • Example: A seal balancing a ball learns it gets food as a consequence. This strengthens the behavior of balancing.

Classical Conditioning

  • Classical conditioning ideas come from old philosophical ideas.
  • Ivan Pavlov elucidated classical conditioning.
  • His work influenced behaviorists like John Watson.
  • Pavlov's experiments involved pairing a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food), leading to a conditioned response (e.g., salivation).

Pavlov's Experiments

  • During conditioning, the neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are paired, resulting in an unconditioned response.
  • After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now a conditioned stimulus) elicits a conditioned response.

Classical Conditioning Terms

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.
  • Unconditioned Response (UCR): The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS.
  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Originally a neutral stimulus, it, after association with the UCS, now triggers a conditioned response.
  • Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus (now a conditioned stimulus).
  • Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially does not elicit a response.

Acquisition

  • The initial stage of learning, where an association is made between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
  • The neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus.
  • The time between the two stimuli should be about half a second.

Extinction

  • The diminished responding that occurs when the conditioned stimulus (CS) no longer signals the unconditioned stimulus (US).

Spontaneous Recovery

  • The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response (CR).
  • Even after extinction, spontaneous recovery can occur.

Stimulus Generalization

  • The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS).
  • Example: Pavlov's dog salivating to tones similar to the conditioned tone.

Stimulus Discrimination

  • The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (US).

Extending Pavlov's Understanding

  • Pavlov and Watson downplayed the importance of cognitive processes and biological constraints in learning.
  • Consciousness or the mind were seen by early behaviorists as unable to be subjected to objective scientific scrutiny.

Cognitive Processes

  • Later behaviorists suggest that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus.
  • They learn expectations and awareness of the stimulus.

Biological Predispositions

  • Pavlov and Watson believed learning laws are similar in all animals.
  • However, later research shows learning is constrained by an organism's biology.
  • Garcia showed that conditioning can occur even with a long delay (hours) between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus.
  • Example: Taste aversion learning.
  • Conditioning can be biologically adaptive - e.g., associating sickness with taste led to conditioning in animals, but sight or sound did not.

Pavlov's Legacy

  • Pavlov's greatest contribution to psychology was isolating elementary behaviors from complex ones using objective scientific procedures.

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Learning 1 PDF
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Description

Explore the fundamentals of learning in psychology, focusing on the concept of associationism. This quiz delves into how organisms learn through experiences and the connections formed through associations between events. Understand the principles laid out by influential philosophers like Aristotle and Locke.

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