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Questions and Answers
What is the range of values for correlation coefficients?
What is the range of values for correlation coefficients?
What characterizes a strong negative correlation?
What characterizes a strong negative correlation?
Which of the following best describes a positive correlation?
Which of the following best describes a positive correlation?
If the correlation coefficient is -0.8, how would you describe this correlation?
If the correlation coefficient is -0.8, how would you describe this correlation?
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What does a correlation coefficient close to 1 indicate?
What does a correlation coefficient close to 1 indicate?
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What does a negative correlation indicate about the relationship between two variables?
What does a negative correlation indicate about the relationship between two variables?
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Which of the following correlation coefficients represents the strongest positive correlation?
Which of the following correlation coefficients represents the strongest positive correlation?
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If a correlation coefficient is 0.0, what does that imply about the relationship between the two variables?
If a correlation coefficient is 0.0, what does that imply about the relationship between the two variables?
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What value would indicate a weak negative correlation?
What value would indicate a weak negative correlation?
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What does a correlation coefficient of -1 imply about the variables?
What does a correlation coefficient of -1 imply about the variables?
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Study Notes
Correlation Strength
- Strength of a correlation is determined by how close the correlation coefficient is to 1 or -1.
- Correlations range between 1 and -1.
- Negative correlation (<0, >-1, -1) indicates a strong negative relationship, where one variable increases as the other decreases.
- Positive correlation (>0, <1, +1) indicates a strong positive relationship, where both variables increase or decrease together.
- A correlation coefficient below -1 or above 1 is likely an error.
Regression to the Mean
- Over time, scores tend to become more average.
Self-Report Study
- Cheap and less labor-intensive.
- Prone to poor reliability and subjective interpretation.
- Difficult to compare with other measures.
- Participants answer questions without researcher interference (e.g., surveys, questionnaires).
- Includes asking about feelings, attitudes, beliefs, etc.
- Self-report studies are often used in observational studies and experiments.
Validity
- Validity refers to the accuracy of a measure.
- Internal validity: Does the study establish a causal relationship?
- External validity: Can findings be generalized to other situations and people?
- Population validity: How well does the sample represent the overall population?
- Ecological validity: To what extent do results reflect real-world settings?
- Threats to Validity: Confounds affect internal validity.
- Test validity: A measure of how much meaning can be placed on the results of a test.
- Criterion validity: Does the test correspond to a recognized standard?
- Concurrent validity: How well does the test compare with similar assessments?
- Predictive validity: Does the test predict future behavior?
- Content validity: Does the test adequately measure all elements of the concept?
- Face validity: Does the test appear to measure the relevant aspect?
- Criterion validity: Does the test correspond to a recognized standard?
Reliability
- Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure.
- Test-retest reliability: The consistency of repeated measurements.
- Inter-rater reliability: The consistency among multiple raters.
Confounding Variables
- Confounding variables can influence the dependent variable, leading to alternative explanations.
Types of Bias
- Hindsight bias (knew-it-all-along effect)
- Social Desirability Bias
- Reconstructive bias (inaccurate memories, especially under high stress)
- Attrition bias (participants dropping out of a study)
- Selection bias (how participants are chosen affects results)
- Subjective bias (personal opinions influence results)
- Implicit bias (unconscious biases affect understanding)
- Cognitive bias (tendency to think in certain ways)
- Sampling bias (method of selecting a sample affects the results)
Other Concepts
- Confidence intervals, variance, beta
- Negative control: A group without any expected response.
- Positive control: A group with a known response.
- Vehicular control: A control group that does not receive the treatment.
- Content Analysis: Method for summarizing any form of content
- Network analysis: Method for studying social structures
- Participant Observation: Researcher participates in activities to collect data
- Reactivity: Influence of the observer on the subject's behavior
- Operationalization: Defining concepts into measurable factors
- Leading Questions: Questions that lead to a specific answer
- Demand characteristics: Aspects of a study that suggest how participants should respond
Generalizability
- Generalization to a population: Applying findings from a study sample to the broader population.
- Considerations to make before making any generalizations of findings of a study: -Representativeness of the sample -Context of the study (environment, time, setting, participant characteristics)
- Generalizing to a theory: Moving from observations to broader hypotheses.
Reliability and Validity of Measurement
- Reliable measurements are consistent.
- Valid measurements accurately measure what they intend to measure.
- Important to examine both reliability and validity during the design and evaluation of a measure.
Bias, Fairness and Reliability of an Examination
- Fairness of an exam means it is free from bias that may disadvantage certain groups.
- Important to account for examinee characteristics, knowledge levels, and the lack of knowledge or skills.
- Items in an exam should be free of bias.
Social Subjectivity and the Deviance Theory
- Social subjectivity: The beliefs and values within a society that shape judgments about behavior.
- Deviance theory: Explains how societies define and react to those individuals that violate norms.
Specific Concepts
- Exogamy: Marriage outside a social group.
- Endogamy: Marriage within a social group.
- Homogamy: Marriage between similar individuals.
- Heterogamy: Marriage between dissimilar individuals.
- Homophily: Tendency for people to prefer relationships with others similar to themselves.
- Social group: Two or more people interacting, sharing characteristics, and having a sense of unity.
- Reconstructive bias: Inaccurate memory reconstruction, especially under high stress.
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Description
This quiz explores concepts related to correlation strength, regression to the mean, self-report studies, and validity in psychological research. Test your understanding of these fundamental statistical concepts and their implications in studies involving human behavior. Challenge yourself with questions that reinforce key terms and principles.
