Textbook for PSY 108 Final

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Questions and Answers

What is a characteristic of basic-level categories?

They are more likely to produce the semantic priming effect

They are very general and include many subcategories

They are used to identify objects in everyday life (correct)

They are typically used in scientific classification

What is the main difference between the prototype approach and the exemplar approach?

The way they categorize new stimuli (correct)

The level of abstraction they propose

The complexity of their theories

The number of categories they propose

What is an exemplar in concept representation?

A single prototype of a category

A specific example of a concept stored in memory (correct)

A node in a network model

A generalization of a concept

What is a node in a network model?

The representation of a concept or unit in a network Signup and view all the answers

What is spreading activation in network models?

The process by which nodes excite nearby or related nodes Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary way in which we organize categories in our semantic memory?

On the basis of a prototype Signup and view all the answers

What is a schema in relation to general knowledge?

Generalized, well-integrated knowledge about a situation Signup and view all the answers

What is the typicality effect in the context of semantic memory?

The observation that people judge prototypical items more quickly than non-prototypical items Signup and view all the answers

What is a script in relation to familiar activities?

A simple, well-structured sequence of events in a specified order Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of semantic priming in psychology?

To show how people respond faster to items with similar meanings Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between network models and categorization models?

The emphasis on interconnections among concepts Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of subordinate-level categories?

They are more specific than basic-level categories Signup and view all the answers

What is the concept of family resemblance in the context of semantic memory?

The notion that no single attribute is shared by all examples of a concept Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between a superordinate-level category and a basic-level category?

A superordinate-level category is more general, while a basic-level category is more specific Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of schemas in relation to general knowledge?

To predict what will happen in a new situation Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of a prototype in the context of semantic memory?

It is the most typical example of a category Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between a prototype and a basic-level category?

A prototype is the best example of a basic-level category Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of family resemblance illustrate about the concept of 'furniture'?

That no single attribute is shared by all furniture Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of schemas in understanding a situation or event?

To represent our thoughts about people Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the tendency to remember having viewed a greater portion of a scene than was actually shown?

Boundary extension Signup and view all the answers

Which approach to memory suggests that people pay attention to the aspect of a message that is most relevant to their current goals?

Pragmatic view Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of using background knowledge to incorporate new information into memory in a schema-consistent manner?

Memory integration Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the field of psycholinguistics?

How people use language to communicate ideas Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the basic unit of spoken language?

Phoneme Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the study of morphemes?

Morphology Signup and view all the answers

Which approach to psycholinguistics suggests that humans have an inborn, universal grammar?

Chomsky's approach Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the area of psycholinguistics that examines the meanings of words and sentences?

Semantics Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the social rules and world knowledge that allow speakers to successfully communicate messages to other people?

Pragmatics Signup and view all the answers

What does the cognitive-functional approach in psycholinguistics emphasize?

The role of language in communicating meaning in everyday life Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of the self-paced reading task in psycholinguistics?

To investigate how people resolve syntactic ambiguities during reading Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of Broca's aphasia?

Trouble producing speech, characterized by hesitant speech Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the mirror system in language?

To simulate observed actions in the brain's motor cortex Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between written and spoken language?

Written language is more visual, while spoken language is more auditory Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of the dual-route approach to reading?

It enables readers to recognize words through both direct and indirect routes Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of research in opposition to Chomsky?

The non-universal patterns of grammar in non-European languages Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of lexical ambiguity?

A word with multiple meanings Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the eye-tracker in psycholinguistics?

To track participants' eye movements during reading or listening Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between Wernicke's aphasia and Broca's aphasia?

Wernicke's aphasia affects language comprehension, while Broca's aphasia affects language production Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of direct access in reading?

To access the word and its meaning through visual patterns Signup and view all the answers

Which approach to reading instruction emphasizes the enjoyment of reading and focuses on meaning?

Whole-language approach Signup and view all the answers

What is the initial state in problem solving?

The situation at the beginning of a problem Signup and view all the answers

How does attention contribute to effective problem solving?

By scanning strategically and deciding which information is most important Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of problem representation in problem solving?

To translate the elements of a problem into a different format Signup and view all the answers

Which problem representation method uses symbols to represent abstract problems?

Symbols Signup and view all the answers

What is the situated cognition approach in problem solving?

Making use of information in the immediate environment or situation Signup and view all the answers

What is the embodied cognition approach in problem solving?

Using one's own body and motor actions to express abstract thoughts and knowledge Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of obstacles in problem solving?

To make it difficult to proceed from the initial state to the goal state Signup and view all the answers

What is the goal state in problem solving?

The situation when the problem is solved Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of an algorithm?

Systematically checking each shelf in alphabetical order to find a specific book in a library Signup and view all the answers

What is the means-ends heuristic?

Dividing the problem into smaller segments and working towards the goal Signup and view all the answers

What is an expert's ability to monitor and evaluate their problem-solving process?

Metacognitive skills Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the tendency to assign stable functions to an object?

Functional fixedness Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the belief that people can cultivate intelligence and skills through effort?

Growth mindset Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a heuristic?

Using a solution to a similar, earlier problem to help solve a new problem Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the belief that a person possesses a certain amount of intelligence and skills, and no amount of effort can improve performance?

Fixed mindset Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the ability to recall domain-relevant information and patterns?

Memory Signup and view all the answers

What is a common factor that increases overconfidence in decision-making?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of an analogy approach?

When learning to play a new musical instrument, relying on previous experience with a similar instrument to understand fingering techniques Signup and view all the answers

What is the recognition heuristic?

Selecting the option that is most familiar to you Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between ecological rationality and the heuristic approach?

The heuristic approach focuses on general cognitive shortcuts, while ecological rationality emphasizes context-specific adaptation Signup and view all the answers

What is the framing effect?

Both the background context and the way a question is worded Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the tendency to apply the same solution used in previous problems, even though there is a different, easier way to solve the problem?

Mental set Signup and view all the answers

What is the hindsight bias?

The belief that an event was inevitable after it has happened Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between maximizers and satisficers?

Maximizers examine many options, while satisficers tend to settle for something that is satisfactory Signup and view all the answers

Which heuristic is illustrated by the example of a person choosing a brand of cereal because they recognize it?

Recognition heuristic Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?

Estimating the result of a math problem based on the first number Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of overconfidence in decision-making?

Being less open to alternative hypotheses Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of satisficers?

They settle for a satisfactory option rather than examining many options Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of insight problems in problem-solving?

They require a sudden, alternative approach to solve the problem. Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between motivation and creativity?

Intrinsic motivation enhances creativity, while extrinsic motivation decreases it. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between deductive reasoning and decision making?

Decision making is more ambiguous than deductive reasoning. Signup and view all the answers

What is the representativeness heuristic in decision making?

A general rule that people use to make judgments based on the similarity between the sample and the population. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary error that occurs when relying on the representativeness heuristic?

Small-sample fallacy Signup and view all the answers

What is the conjunction fallacy in decision making?

An error that occurs when people judge the probability of the conjunction of two events to be greater than the probability of either constituent event. Signup and view all the answers

What is the availability heuristic in decision making?

Estimating frequency or probability based on the ease of recalling relevant examples. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between insight and non-insight problems?

Insight problems require a sudden, alternative approach, while non-insight problems are solved gradually. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of metacognition during problem solving?

Confidence builds gradually for non-insight problems, but experiences a sudden leap for insight problems when the solution is near. Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of decision making?

Assessing information and choosing among two or more alternatives. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Prototype Theory to Semantic Memory

Organize categories based on a prototype, the best and most typical example of a category
Prototype has characteristics that differ from non-prototypes
Typicality effect: judge typical items (prototypes) faster than non-typical items (non-prototypes)
Semantic priming effect: respond faster to an item if preceded by an item with similar meaning

Levels of Categorization

Superordinate-level categories: higher-level or more general categories (e.g. "Furniture", "animal", "tool")
Basic-level categories: moderately specific categories (e.g. "chair", "dog", "screwdriver")
Subordinate-level categories: lower-level or more specific categories (e.g. "Desk chair", "collie", "Phillips screwdriver")

Exemplar Theory to Semantic Memory

Argues that we first learn information about specific examples of a concept
Classify each new stimulus by comparing it to multiple known exemplars in a category
Differs from prototype theory in that it compares to multiple exemplars, not a single prototype

Network Models of Semantic Memory

Propose that semantic memory consists of a netlike organization of concepts in memory
Interconnections among related items are emphasized
Nodes: representations of each concept
Spreading activation: process by which nodes excite nearby or related nodes

Schemas and Scripts

Schemas: generalized, well-integrated knowledge about a situation, event, or person
Scripts: simple, well-structured sequences of events in a specified order
Schemas influence understanding of a situation and predict what will happen
Related to general knowledge and memory selection

Constructivist and Pragmatic Approaches to Memory

Constructivist model: people integrate information from individual sentences to construct larger ideas
Pragmatic view: people pay attention to the aspect of a message that is most relevant to their current goals
Memory integration: using background knowledge to incorporate new information into memory in a schema-consistent manner

Psycholinguistics

Definition: an interdisciplinary field that examines how people use language to communicate ideas
Key terms: phoneme, morpheme, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics
Differentiate between early theories: Chomsky's approach, cognitive-functional approach
Methodologies: negation and passive voice, incremental interpretation, self-paced reading task, lexical ambiguity, syntactic ambiguity, eye-tracker

Neurolinguistics

Definition: the discipline that examines how the brain processes language
Language disorders: Broca's aphasia, Wernicke's aphasia
Hemispheric specialization/lateralization: each hemisphere of the brain has somewhat different functions
Mirror system: a network involving the brain's motor cortex, suggests a link between understanding language and motor processes

Written and Spoken Language

Differences: visual nature, control over input rate, ability to rescan, standardized input, clear word boundaries, lack of nonverbal cues, requiring more elaborate teaching for children's mastery
Similarities: both involve understanding words and sentences, strong correlation between reading and oral comprehension in adults

Problem Solving and Creativity

Definition: the processes used to reach a specified goal for which the solution is not immediately obvious
Components: initial state, goal state, obstacles
Relationship between attention and problem solving: scanning strategically, deciding which information is most important
Methods of problem representation: symbols, matrices, diagrams, visual images

Situated and Embodied Cognition

Situated cognition approach: using information in the immediate environment or situation
Embodied cognition approach: using the body and motor actions to express abstract thoughts and knowledge
Examples: using landmarks and street signs to navigate, using gestures to remember a word

Problem Solving Strategies

Algorithm vs heuristic: algorithm always produces a solution, while heuristic usually produces a correct solution
Exhaustive search: an example of an algorithm
Analogy approach: using a solution to a similar problem to help solve a new problem
Means-ends heuristic: dividing the problem into subproblems and reducing the difference between the initial state and the goal state
Hill-climbing heuristic: consistently choosing the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward the goal

Factors that Influence Problem Solving

Expertise: impressive memory abilities or consistently exceptional performance in a particular area
Knowledge base: specialized and extensive domain-specific knowledge and schemas
Memory: highly specific and detailed memory retrieval abilities of experts### Problem-Solving Strategies
Experts use systematic and efficient approaches to address novel challenges, including means-end heuristics, systematic analysis, and leveraging of analogies.
Speed and accuracy in problem-solving are achieved through automaticity, parallel processing, and efficient utilization of domain-specific knowledge and strategies.

Metacognitive Skills

Experts monitor, evaluate, and regulate problem-solving processes, including accurate judgment of task difficulty, efficient time allocation, and adaptive response to errors.
Metacognitive skills contribute to overall problem-solving effectiveness and expertise development.

Mental Set and Fixed Mindset

Mental set refers to applying the same solution used in previous problems, even when there is a different, easier way to solve the problem.
Fixed mindset is the belief that a person's intelligence and skills are fixed and cannot be improved with effort.

Growth Mindset and Functional Fixedness

Growth mindset is the belief that people can cultivate intelligence and skills by challenging themselves to perform better.
Functional fixedness is the tendency to assign stable functions to an object, limiting thinking about its features that might be useful in solving a problem.

Insight and Non-Insight Problems

Insight problems involve sudden realization of a solution after initially seeming impossible to solve.
Non-insight problems are solved gradually through memory, reasoning, and routine strategies.

Metacognition in Problem-Solving

Research shows that metacognitive patterns differ between insight and non-insight problems, with confidence building gradually for non-insight problems and experiencing a sudden leap for insight problems.

Creativity and Motivation

Creativity involves generating solutions that are both novel and useful.
Intrinsic motivation enhances creativity, whereas extrinsic motivation generally decreases creativity.

Decision Making and Deductive Reasoning

Decision making involves assessing information and choosing among alternatives, often with ambiguity.
Deductive reasoning begins with specific premises and judges whether they allow a particular conclusion to be drawn based on logical principles.

Decision-Making Heuristics

Representativeness heuristic: judgments based on similarity between a sample and the population.
Small-sample fallacy: assuming a small sample is representative of the population.
Base-rate fallacy: paying too little attention to important information about how often an item occurs in the population.
Conjunction fallacy: judging the probability of a conjunction of events to be greater than the probability of either constituent event.
Availability heuristic: estimating frequency or probability based on how easy it is to think of relevant examples.
Recency bias: estimating frequency or probability based on the most recent information.
Familiarity bias: estimating frequency or probability based on how familiar one is with something.
Recognition heuristic: choosing the option one recognizes over the one one doesn't.
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic: beginning with a first approximation and making adjustments based on additional information.

Ecological Rationality

Ecological rationality: creating a wide variety of heuristics to make adaptive choices in the real world, emphasizing context-specific adaptation.
Ecological rationality differs from the heuristic approach, which focuses on identifying general cognitive shortcuts.

Framing Effect

Framing effect: when decisions are influenced by the background context or wording of a question.
Factors influencing the framing effect include the way information is presented.

Overconfidence in Decision-Making

Overconfidence: when confidence judgments are higher than they should be based on actual performance.
Uncertain assumptions, confirmation bias, and difficulty in recalling alternative hypotheses contribute to overconfidence.

Hindsight Bias

Hindsight bias: believing, after an event has occurred, that it was inevitable and was predicted all along.
Example: claiming to have known a team would win a championship after the event has occurred.

Maximizers and Satisficers

Maximizers: people who examine as many options as possible rather than settling for something satisfactory.
Satisficers: people who settle for something satisfactory rather than examining numerous options.

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Description

Understand how we organize categories based on prototypes, characteristics of prototypes, and the typicality effect in semantic memory.