Psychology Chapter 5 Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What is Psychobiology primarily concerned with?

The psychological theories behind learning processes

The impact of socio-cultural factors on behavior

The study of behavioral responses to external stimuli

The biological mechanisms that influence behavior (correct)

Which cognitive function is primarily associated with the left hemisphere of the brain?

Movement control for the left side of the body

Speech and abstract thinking (correct)

Image processing

Spatial thinking

What does the law of diminishing returns imply about learning?

Increased efforts lead to constant improvement in learning outcomes

Learning is independent of the quantity of effort put in

Learning becomes equally effective every time effort is applied

Less additional improvement occurs with the same amount of effort over time (correct)

According to the Rescola-Wagner Rule, what does Delta V represent?

The amount of surprise associated with an outcome Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the blocking phenomenon in learning?

Knowledge of a new stimulus is impeded by an existing conditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is primarily involved in excitatory signaling in the brain?

Glutamate Signup and view all the answers

As the learning process advances, what happens to the value of V according to the Rescola-Wagner Rule?

V increases steadily Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of neurons in the nervous system?

To transmit electrical signals throughout the body Signup and view all the answers

What consequence did Tom face after Bob offered him peanuts?

He was taken to the hospital. Signup and view all the answers

Why is it uncertain whether Tom is allergic to kale?

Tom's reaction was solely due to peanuts. Signup and view all the answers

What did the knowledge of Tom's peanut allergy influence regarding kale?

It blocked the consideration of potentially being allergic to kale. Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the monkey's association between the visual cue and the banana milkshake?

It showed a learned behavior linked to rewards. Signup and view all the answers

What does the absence of VTA activation in Plot 2 indicate?

The monkey predicted the reward after the image was shown. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Rastor Plot represent in the study of the monkey's response?

The firing of neurons connected to reward processing. Signup and view all the answers

What happens when the reward is presented for the first time in the monkey study?

The monkey has no prediction of the reward. Signup and view all the answers

What was the main finding when the monkey was shown the image without the reward?

The monkey showed silence in response. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to VTA firing when a monkey predicts a reward?

There is no increase in firing. Signup and view all the answers

Which outcome was observed in humans during predictable trials?

Increased activity in the Nucleus Accumbens. Signup and view all the answers

What leads to over-expectations in rats during reward prediction?

Being presented with two stimuli for one reward. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding prediction error signals?

They enhance learning by reinforcing accurate predictions. Signup and view all the answers

How does inactivating the orbitofrontal cortex affect VTA prediction error?

It inhibits VTA prediction error. Signup and view all the answers

In the experiment with babies regarding object and sound, what was observed?

The baby reacted to unpredicted outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary factor affecting the activity in the Nucleus Accumbens during predictable trials?

The unpredictability of rewards. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the reaction of rats when they received less reward than expected?

They spent less time waiting for the reward. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Psychobiology Pre-lecture Work 1

Psychobiology is the study of biological mechanisms of normal and abnormal behavior. Behavior is influenced by bodily function, with the brain playing a key role.

Organisation of the Brain

The brain is divided into lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal), the central sulcus, Sylvian fissure, pons, cerebellum, medulla, and spinal cord. These structures are interconnected.

The Hemispheres

Left hemisphere: controls speech and abstract thinking, and the right side of the body.
Right hemisphere: responsible for image processing, spatial thinking, and movement in the left side of the body.
The two hemispheres communicate via nerve fibres.

Neurons Structure

Neurons have dendrites (receivers), a cell body, an axon (conducting fibre), a myelin sheath (insulating layer), nodes of Ranvier, and axon terminals (transmitters). The myelin sheath speeds transmission.

Main Neurotransmitters

Glutamate
Dopamine
GABA

Lecture Notes: What is Learning?

Learning is the acquisition of behavioral information.
Memory is the retention of information.
Learning is crucial for adaptive behavior.
Memory improves with more learning

Law of Diminishing Returns

The same effort put into learning yields progressively less additional improvement over time.

The Rescola-Wagner Rule

Learning occurs most strongly when outcomes are surprising.
The amount learned is proportional to the amount of surprise in the outcome.
As learning progresses, the prediction error (surprise) decreases.

Supporting Evidence - Pavlovian Blocking

Blocking occurs when a new stimulus accompanied by a well-established conditioned stimulus (CS) does not lead to new learning.
The pre-existing CS blocks the new information about the accompanying stimulus

Hollerman & Schultz: Monkey Study

Monkeys learn to associate a visual cue with a reward (in this case a banana milkshake)
Brain activity using neurons that release dopamine in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) is observed.
This highlights the importance of prediction error and reward signals in learning

Plot 3: Dopamine Neurons and Prediction Error

Monkey shown an image, but no reward given. This results in a lack of dopamine neuron activity.
This illustrates that dopamine neurons respond to prediction errors (differences between what was expected and what actually happened).

Plot 1 & 2: Dopamine and Reward Prediction

Plot 1 (first time): Shows unpredictable activity in the VTA - this is because there was no prior expectation of a reward.
Plot 2 (later trial): The VTA demonstrates a predictive response to the image.

Conclusion: Prediction Error and VTA Firing

If the monkey doesn't predict the reward, the VTA fires.
When prediction is correct (reward is expected), VTA does not fire.

Prediction Error in Humans

Experiments using predictable (water and juice) and unpredictable stimuli show that activity in the Nucleus Accumbens is greater in response to the unexpected.
Dopamine (from VTA) is crucial for this (reinforcement learning).

Supporting Evidence - Inhibition of the Orbitofrontal Cortex

Inhibition of the orbitofrontal cortex in animals demonstrates that the VTA is necessary for learning.

Learning in Babies: Prediction Error

Babies react when they don’t predict an outcome (e.g., a cart not making a sound stopping).

Timescales: Visual Memory

Visual memory has two stages; immediate or iconic memory (less than a second) and visual short-term memory.

Pavlovian Fear Conditioning (Rats)

An experiment testing how long it takes rats to forget the sound/shock association
An experiment using sound, shock, and freezing behavior.

Memory Consolidation (Pavlovian Fear Conditioning)

Consolidation creates lasting memories from short-term memory.
Protein synthesis is involved in memory consolidation
The use of Anisomycin to inhibit protein synthesis.

Arc Protein and Memory Consolidation

Scientists discovered that the Arc protein is involved in memory consolidation by using antisense technology to limit its production.

NMDA Receptors and Learning

NMDA receptors are essential for learning – they directly bind to glutamate and can affect memory formation (or lack of memory).

Neuroscience Implications of Epilepsy

Epilepsy is linked to altered BDNF expression.
Met supplementation may offer a way to improve memory in people with epilepsy.

Learning and Memory (Energy Use)

Learning and memory are energy intensive processes; the brain prioritises important information.
Memory can be categorized for easier recall

Synaptic Plasticity

Synaptic plasticity is the ability of synapses to adjust their strength. It results from differences in neuron activation.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

High-frequency stimulation increase synaptic strength.
Was discovered in rabbits' hippocampus by Bliss and Lomo.

Two Types of LTP

Non-associative LTP: activity in the presynaptic neuron alone can increase the synaptic strength.
Associative LTP: coincident activity in the pre-and post-synaptic neurons is required for the increase in synaptic strength.

LTP and Fear Conditioning

LTP plays a critical role in fear conditioning; this process occurs mainly in the amygdala.

Making an Artificial Fear Memory (Optogenetics)

Optogenetics can induce fear memory without a foot shock stimulus when light is used.

Long-Term Depression (LTD)

LTD decreases synaptic strength with low-frequency stimulation.
This mechanism may underlie motor learning (processes that happen in the cerebellum)

Coexisting LTD and LTP

LTD and LTP co-exist and can both affect increased responding.
In an inhibitory synapse, weakening it excites the neurons.

Neural Communication: Resting Membrane Potential

The electrical potential difference inside and outside a neuron when it is at rest. It is normally -70 mV
Sodium-potassium pump maintains a negative charge inside a cell.

Neural Communication: Action Potential

The rapid depolarization and repolarization of a neuron's membrane potential in response to a stimulus.
The change happens in rapid sequence of opening and closing of sodium and potassium voltage-gated channels.

Synapses and Synaptic Transmission

Chemical transmission where the neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft is converted to an electrical signal.

Postsynaptic potentials: Hyperpolarization and Depolarization

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) : decrease the negative resting potential.
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) : increase the negative resting potential

Spatial and Temporal Summation

Spatial summation: summing of EPSPs from multiple synapses
Temporal summation: summing of EPSPs from a single synapse over time

Neurotransmitter Receptors: Ionotropic and Metabotropic

Ionotropic receptors: directly alter ion channels.
Metabotropic receptors: cascade effect using G-proteins .

Binding of Ligands to Receptors

Selectivity to different shapes
Can have several receptor types

Neurotransmitters: Amino Acid Derivatives and Monoamines

Glutamate, GABA, Glycine
Dopamine, serotonin, noradrenaline
Peptides (neurotransmitters that are chains of amino acids, complex and diverse set of functions.

Psychopharmacology: Key Terms

Pharmacology: study of drugs
Drugs: a substance that produces a physiological effect.
Psychopharmacology: study of psychoactive drugs' effect on behavior and psychological processes.

Pharmacokinetics

How the body deals with drug (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion)
Routes of administration: oral ingestion, rectal, nasal, sublingual, transdermal, inhalation, injection

First Pass Metabolism

Early breakdown of drugs in the stomach and liver (before systemic circulation).

Drug Absorption

How drugs move through cell membranes into blood stream.
Lipid solubility and ionization affect absorption.

Drug Distribution & Target for Action

Drugs reach various parts of the body, including the brain (but not all compounds cross the blood-brain barrier).

Drug Metabolism

Conversion of a drug into another compound; often done by the liver.

Drug Elimination

Different routes for drug elimination: urine, breath, sweat, faeces.

Drug Response: Time Course

Onset of action: time to reach peak effect.
Duration of action: time until the drug wears off; half-life is how long for levels to be reduced in half

Pharmacodynamics

Agonists (mimic or enhance effects of neurotransmitters)
Partial agonists (weak agonists): only partially activate receptors.
Antagonists (block or reduce effect of neurotransmitters)

Direct and Indirect Mechanisms

Direct agonists: mimic effect of neurotransmitter.
Indirect agonists: enhance the effect of neurotransmitter via other mechanisms.
Inverse agonists: opposite effect to agonists.
Direct antagonists block receptor binding.
Indirect antagonists: interfere with neurotransmitter release or production.

Allosteric Modulators

Effect on receptors not related to the normal ligand
Can increase or decrease likelihood of agonist binding.

Quantifying Drug Effects (Dose-Response Curve)

Dose-response curve analyses to measure drug potency and efficacy
ED50 = amount of drug that has half of maximum response.
Potency = dose needed for a certain response (efficacy).
Efficacy = maximum response reached.
Therapeutic index tells us how safe a drug is.

Action of Psychoactive Drugs: Alcohol

Effects vary based on dose. Typical depressant effect on the brain.

Alcohol on the Brain

Enhances GABA activity (GABA receptors)
Inhibits glutamate activity (NMDA receptors)
Affects neurotransmission of serotonin, opioids, dopamine, cannabinoid receptors.

Alcohol Biotransformation

Conversion to acetaldehyde and then acetic acid.
Food slows absorption, men metabolise alcohol more slowly than women.

Factors Affecting Alcohol Metabolism

Food in stomach
Gender (sex)
Ethnicity

Cocaine

Psychoactive drug (extracted from coca plants)
Routes of administration (nasal, inhaled)
Effects: increased alertness, pupils dilation, psychological affects.

Cocaine Effects on the Brain

Blocks dopamine transporter.
Prolongs dopamine in synapse

Amphetamines

Synthetic stimulant.
similar mechanism as cocaine (increase neurotransmission of dopamine and noradrenaline)

Nicotine ,Caffeine

Direct agonists of acetylcholine
Increased neurotransmission (especially dopamine)

Opiates

Natural/synthetic opioid drugs (morphine, codeine, heroin, fentanyl, oxycodone).
Targets opioid receptors in the brain, affecting dopamine release.

Cannabis

Main active component: THC
THC is a direct agonist at CB1 and CB2 receptors resulting in dopamine release.

Factors Contributing to Differences in Drug Effects

Individual differences in physical factors like metabolism or size (liver mass/blood volume) can affect drug response.
Differences in age, sex, and sociocultural factors play a role.
Genetic factors affect drug responses.

Drug Tolerance

Tolerance reflects how less effective a drug becomes with repeated use.
There are metabolic and cellular/systemic tolerance mechanisms

Placebo Effect

Placebo effect can demonstrate physiological and behavioral effects due to belief of a treatment.

Emotion:

A complex interplay between physiological (autonomic, muscular, hormonal), cognitive(appraisal of event, context, and memory), and expectation processes
Amygdala plays a crucial role in emotional memory and responding to fearful stimuli
Prefrontal cortex (PFC) involved in emotional control
Implict racial bias: there is a greater amygdala response to Black faces.

PTSD:

Trauma and Stressor-related Disorder
Characterised by re-experiencing, avoidance, negative thoughts/beliefs, and arousal.
Amygdala excessively active in individuals with PTSD.
PFC function and ability to resolve fear responses are hampered.

Motivated behaviors

Motivations not as simple as reflexes (can be influenced by many factors).
Preparatory behavior is goal-directed (e.g, preparing to eat or mate).
Consummatory behavior is achieving a goal (e.g., eating or mating).

Drive Theory

States that deviations from homeostasis leads to a need state or physiological deprivation state resulting in a drive state which activates behaviour towards a goal.
Negative feedback systems are part of homeostasis.

Liking vs Wanting

Liking: Sensory pleasure (unconscious).
Wanting: Motivational incentive value (can be conscious or unconscious).

Development of the Nervous System

Birth of neurons (migration, differentiation, formation of the cerebral cortex)
Neuronal connections
Synapse formation (synaptogenesis)
Myelination of neurons
Importance of critical periods for development

Neurodegeneration and Recovery

Types of neurodegeneration (stroke, neurodegenerative diseases)
Brain shrinkage and loss of synapses (neurons)
General causes of neuron death (e.g., hypoxia, excitotoxicity)
Huntington's disease (genetic link, basal ganglia degeneration)

Alzheimer's Disease

Neurological disorder causing memory loss, executive issues, and personality changes.
Associated with the accumulation of amyloid-beta plaques and neurofibrillary tangles
Several types and subtypes
Causes: genetic factors (e.g. APOE4) and environmental factors such as diet & inactivity.

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Test your knowledge on key concepts in psychobiology and cognitive functions. This quiz covers topics such as the Rescola-Wagner Rule, neurotransmitter roles, and learning phenomena like blocking. Perfect for psychology students looking to reinforce their understanding of brain functions and learning processes.