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Questions and Answers
What does Weber's Law state about the perception of stimuli?
What does Weber's Law state about the perception of stimuli?
Clairvoyance refers to the ability to predict future events.
Clairvoyance refers to the ability to predict future events.
False
What impact does partial sleep deprivation have on performance?
What impact does partial sleep deprivation have on performance?
It negatively affects concentration and performance, especially on boring tasks.
Freud's theory of dreams suggests they fulfill _____ desires.
Freud's theory of dreams suggests they fulfill _____ desires.
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Match the following sleep disorders with their descriptions:
Match the following sleep disorders with their descriptions:
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Which method of dream theory emphasizes problem-solving?
Which method of dream theory emphasizes problem-solving?
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Nightmares occur during non-REM sleep.
Nightmares occur during non-REM sleep.
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Name one common form of extrasensory perception.
Name one common form of extrasensory perception.
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Which part of the ear is primarily responsible for balancing?
Which part of the ear is primarily responsible for balancing?
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Anosmia refers to the enhanced sense of smell.
Anosmia refers to the enhanced sense of smell.
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What are the four basic tastes recognized in gustation?
What are the four basic tastes recognized in gustation?
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The part of the ear that relays vibrations to the inner ear is called the _____
The part of the ear that relays vibrations to the inner ear is called the _____
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Match the following terms with their descriptions:
Match the following terms with their descriptions:
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Which theory of hearing suggests that each tone is located at a specific place?
Which theory of hearing suggests that each tone is located at a specific place?
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Cutaneous sensitivities include sensations of pressure, pain, and temperature.
Cutaneous sensitivities include sensations of pressure, pain, and temperature.
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What condition is often caused by prolonged loud sounds damaging the ear structures?
What condition is often caused by prolonged loud sounds damaging the ear structures?
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Which type of set prepares the body to react to anticipated stimuli?
Which type of set prepares the body to react to anticipated stimuli?
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The Law of Similarity states that we perceive elements that are dissimilar as belonging together.
The Law of Similarity states that we perceive elements that are dissimilar as belonging together.
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What is perceived constancy concerning an object's size despite changes in distance?
What is perceived constancy concerning an object's size despite changes in distance?
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The ability to focus on specific stimuli is known as ______.
The ability to focus on specific stimuli is known as ______.
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Match the following forms of perceptual constancy with their definitions:
Match the following forms of perceptual constancy with their definitions:
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Which of the following is NOT an intense stimulus that can grab attention?
Which of the following is NOT an intense stimulus that can grab attention?
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Infants can see colors clearly and have fully developed visual systems.
Infants can see colors clearly and have fully developed visual systems.
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What field studies the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological perception?
What field studies the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological perception?
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Sensory ______ refers to the decrease in intensity of a sensation over time when a stimulus remains constant.
Sensory ______ refers to the decrease in intensity of a sensation over time when a stimulus remains constant.
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Which factor does NOT influence perception?
Which factor does NOT influence perception?
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What are exteroceptors responsible for?
What are exteroceptors responsible for?
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The retina is responsible for maintaining the shape of the eye.
The retina is responsible for maintaining the shape of the eye.
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Name the three layers of the human eye.
Name the three layers of the human eye.
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Individuals with ______ experience an inability to focus on near objects due to aging.
Individuals with ______ experience an inability to focus on near objects due to aging.
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Which color is NOT one of the psychological primaries?
Which color is NOT one of the psychological primaries?
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Monochromacy refers to the ability to see all colors distinctly.
Monochromacy refers to the ability to see all colors distinctly.
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What do afterimages refer to?
What do afterimages refer to?
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Match each color vision deficiency with its description:
Match each color vision deficiency with its description:
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The minimum stimulus amount required to excite a receptor is called the ______.
The minimum stimulus amount required to excite a receptor is called the ______.
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Which theory of vision suggests that color vision evolved in three stages?
Which theory of vision suggests that color vision evolved in three stages?
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What is the primary focus of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory?
What is the primary focus of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory?
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Erikson's stage of 'Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt' occurs during adolescence.
Erikson's stage of 'Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt' occurs during adolescence.
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What is the main difference between the Concrete Operational Stage and the Formal Operational Stage in Piaget's theory?
What is the main difference between the Concrete Operational Stage and the Formal Operational Stage in Piaget's theory?
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The stage of moral reasoning where judgments are based on ethics and principles is called the ______ level.
The stage of moral reasoning where judgments are based on ethics and principles is called the ______ level.
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Match each stage of Erikson's psychosocial development with its key challenge:
Match each stage of Erikson's psychosocial development with its key challenge:
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In which Piaget stage do children primarily engage in symbolic play?
In which Piaget stage do children primarily engage in symbolic play?
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Kohlberg's Heinz Dilemma is a well-known example used to illustrate cognitive development.
Kohlberg's Heinz Dilemma is a well-known example used to illustrate cognitive development.
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What do schemas represent in Piaget's theory?
What do schemas represent in Piaget's theory?
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Study Notes
Weber's Law
- The amount of change needed to detect a difference between two stimuli is dependent on the initial intensity of the stimulus.
- The larger the first stimulus, the bigger the change required to notice a difference.
Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
- ESP is the awareness of the world without using the five senses
- Telepathy: Mind-to-mind communication
- Precognition: Predicting future events
- Clairvoyance: Perceiving distant events
- Psychokinesis: Moving objects with the mind
Theories and Functions of Dreams
- Freud's Wish Fulfillment Theory proposes that dreams fulfill unmet desires
- Cartwright's Problem-Solving Theory suggests dreams help people work through everyday problems
- Activation-Synthesis Theory by Hobson and McCarley suggests dreams are random signals from neurons firing during sleep, with less emphasis on emotions
Sleep Deprivation and Sleep Disorders
- Partial Sleep Deprivation: Occurs when someone consistently gets less sleep than needed, affecting concentration and performance, especially on boring or repetitive tasks.
- Sleep Disorders:
- Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep
- Narcolepsy: Sudden sleep attacks during the day
- Sleep Apnea: Breathing temporarily stops during sleep
- Night Terrors: Sudden, intense panic during sleep, mostly in children
- Nightmares: Anxiety-inducing dreams that occur during REM sleep
- Somnambulism (Sleepwalking): Walking or performing other activities while still asleep
Theories of Sleep
- Restorative Theory: Sleep restores energy and repairs the body
- Circadian Theory: Sleep is a part of our biological cycle, helping conserve energy and protect us from danger
- Two-Process Theory: Slow-wave sleep restores the body, while REM sleep helps regulate our internal clock (circadian rhythms)
Attention
- Attention is the ability to focus on specific stimuli in the environment
- Determined by physical properties like intensity, change, and repetition.
Types of Sets
- Motor Set: The body is ready to react based on anticipated stimuli (e.g., waiting for a bell to signal leaving the room)
- Perceptual Set: The mind is ready to notice specific stimuli (e.g., a hungry person notices restaurant signs)
- Mental Set: The mind is prepared to think about situations in a particular way
Stimuli Affecting Attention
- Intense Stimuli: Strong stimuli are more noticeable (e.g., bright colors)
- Changing Stimuli: Things that change, like flickering lights, grab attention
- Repeated Stimuli: Repetition helps capture attention (e.g., calling someone's name multiple times)
- Contrasting Stimuli: Something that stands out from its surroundings is more noticeable (e.g., a black sheep among white ones)
Gestalt Laws of Perception
- Law of Pragnanz: We perceive complex shapes in the simplest way possible
- Law of Proximity: Elements close together are perceived as part of the same group
- Law of Continuity: We see connected lines or curves as following a smooth path
- Law of Closure: We tend to fill in gaps to see complete shapes
- Law of Similarity: Similar elements are grouped together
Perceptual Constancies
- Size Constancy: An object's size is perceived as constant, even when it appears smaller or larger due to distance
- Shape Constancy: An object's shape is perceived as unchanged, even if the angle of view changes
- Brightness Constancy: The brightness of an object is perceived consistently, regardless of lighting conditions
- Color Constancy: Colors appear the same despite changes in lighting
Perceptual Contrast
- Perceptual Contrast occurs when the same stimulus looks different depending on its context
Development of Visual Perception
- Neonates (newborns): Can only see about 9-12 inches from their face and have no color vision, likely see only in shades of black, white, and gray, their eye muscles aren't fully developed to coordinate, visual systems are still maturing
- Infants: Begin to see more and develop preferences for complex patterns and bright colors
- Adults: Have the ability to see clearly up to about 150 feet
Environmental Influences on Perception
- Ordinary Sensorimotor Experiences: Experiences like moving around help develop perception
- Sensory Deprivation: A lack of sensory input after infancy can affect perception
- States of Mind: Emotions, goals, expectations, and mental state affect what we perceive
- Culture: People from different backgrounds interpret things based on their cultural experiences
- Acquired Knowledge: What a person knows influences how they perceive things
Psychophysics and Sensory Adaptation
- Psychophysics: A field studying the relationship between stimuli (physical) and how we perceive them (psychological)
- Sensory Adaptation: Over time, the intensity of a sensation decreases if the stimulus remains constant
- Absolute Threshold: The smallest detectable stimulus
- Difference Threshold: The smallest difference in stimuli that can be noticed (also known as Just Noticeable Difference)
Hearing
- Timbre: Describes the unique sound
- Ultrasonic: Beyond 25,000 cps
- Subsonic: Below 16 cps
- Pinna: External part of the ear
- Eardrum: Cone-shaped membrane separating outer and middle ear
- Malleus: Relays vibrations
- Incus: Receives vibrations
- Stapes: Transmits vibrations to the inner ear
- 2 Labyrinths: Help maintain balance
- Semicircular Canal: Filled with endolymph
- Cochlea: Responsible for hearing
- Eustachian tube: Equalizes pressure (mid and external)
- Static sense: Provides info about orientation, balance, and acceleration
Hearing Defects
- Conduction deafness: Defect in the bones and membranes; due to loud sounds
- Discrimination Deafness: Due to nerve damage (old age)
Theories of Hearing
- Place Theory: Each tone has a specific location
- Volley Theory: Nerve fibers operate in alternating fashion
- Frequency theory: Ears serve as relay mechanisms
- Modern Hearing Theory: Place and frequency theory
Olfaction (Sense of Smell)
- Olfactory stimuli: Airborne particles carried to receptor cells in the nose
- Schneiderian membranes: Receptors for smell located at the upper part of each nostril
- Olfactory Bulbs: Receive neural signals about smells, part of the forebrain
- Primary Olfactory Qualities: Fragrant, spicy, fruity, resinous, putrid (decay), and burnt smells
- Anosmia: Loss of smell
- Olfactory adaptation: Sense of smell weakens over time (prolonged exposure)
Gustation (Sense of Taste)
- Gustatory stimuli: Substances that dissolve in saliva
- Taste buds: Receptors for taste
- Four basic tastes: Sweet, salty, sour, bitter
- Taste sensitivity: Decreases with age and reduced by smoking
Cutaneous Sensitivities (Touch)
- Skin senses:
- Pressure: Hairbulbs, Meissner's, and Merkel corpuscles
- Pain: Free nerve endings
- Warmth: Ruffini cylinders and free nerve endings
- Cold: Krause end bulbs and free nerve endings
- Sensitivity: Varies across the body
- Pain spots: Denser than pressure spots
- Temperature: Perceived based on comparison with a "psychological zero", around 32.2°C
Kinesthetic Sensitivities (Body Movement)
- Proprioceptors: Kinesthetic receptors located in muscles, tendons, and joints
- Muscle sense: Ability to coordinate movements by sending signals to the brain
Perception
- Perception: Combines sensory information and past experiences to recognize objects or situations
Receptors
- Specialized cells that respond to stimuli
- Exteroceptors: Located on the outer surface of the body, stimulated by stimuli external to the organism
- Interoceptors: Located in the linings of viscera
- Proprioceptors: Found in muscles, tendons, and joints, stimulated by energy changes from movement
- Threshold: Minimum stimulus amount to excite a receptor
Vision
- Human eye sensitive to wavelengths from 400 to 800 millimicrons
- Three layers of the human eye:
- Sclerotic coat: White, maintains shape, protects
- Choroid coat: Supplies nutrients, maintains temperature and volume
- Retina: Detects light, converts it into signals to the brain
- Light Receptors:
- Rods: Sensitive to light
- Cones: Sensitive to color
- Vision Problems:
- Fovea Centralis: Clear vision
- Blind Spot: Optic nerve ends, devoid of cones/rods
- Myopia: Inability to see far
- Hyperopia: Inability to see near
- Presbyopia: Inability to focus on near objects due to aging
- Astigmatism: Irregular shape of the cornea
- Retinal Disparity: Difference in images received by the eyes when focusing
- Dark Adaptation: Prepares eyes for low illumination
- Purkinje Phenomenon: Shift in relative brightness of colors as illumination intensity changes
Color
- Used loosely to mean all tints and shades
- Hue: Perceived dimension of color
- Brightness: Amount of illumination
- Saturation: Purity of hue
- Psychological primaries: Red, blue, green, yellow
- Complementary colors: Opposite each other on the color wheel
- Surface colors: Appearance of color
- Color blindness: Visual deficiency (e.g., red-green)
- Monochromacy: Complete color blindness (gray)
- Dichromacy: Partial color blindness
- Protanopia: Red as black, green as grayish
- Deuteranopia: Unable to distinguish G, Y, R
- Tritanopia: Cannot see blue
- Trichromats: Normal color vision
Afterimages
- Afterimages: Retina impressions persist
- Positive Afterimages: Resembles original colors
- Negative Afterimages: Displays complementary colors
Theories of Vision
- Young-Helmholtz theory (1852): Tiny cells translate light waves into three primary colours (BGR)
- Hering Theory (1874): Opponent process theory, appearance of color is due to opposing processes (e.g., R vs G)
- Ladd-Franklin Theory (1892): Color vision evolved in three stages: achromatic, B-Y sensitivity, and R-G sensitivity
Hearing
- Audition: Sensitivity to sound waves (CPS = cycle per second)
- Wave: Vibrations
- Frequency: Number of times a sound pressure wave repeats per second
- Amplitude: Height of a crest, depth of troughs, measure of intensity
- Decibels: Units to express wave intensity
- Sine wave: One frequency (pure tone)
- Complex wave: Two or more sine waves (summation)
- Double vibration: Two simultaneous vibrations
- Overtones: Frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental frequency
Jean Piaget
- Proposed a series of discrete stages of development, evident through qualitative differences
- Focused on children's development
- Schemas: Basic building blocks of knowledge
- Cognitive Development Theory: Focuses on intellectual development through progressive adaptation to the environment, transition from one stage to another, intellectual growth is a result of adaptation and the need to maintain equilibrium
- Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Children discover differences between themselves and their environment through coordinated motor and sensory experiences
- Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Children are self-centered (egocentric), engage in symbolic play, and use intuitive rather than logical reasoning
- Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Development of logical thinking skills, understanding of conservation tasks
- Formal Operational Stage (11-15 years): Understanding of abstract thought, propositional reasoning, and general thought processes, development of strong idealism
Lawrence Kohlberg
- Moral Reasoning:
- Heinz Dilemma: A moral dilemma about a man stealing medicine to save his wife’s life
- Stages of Moral Development:
- Pre-conventional Level: Judgments based on rewards and punishments
- Conventional Level: Judgments based on what others think
- Post-conventional Level: Judgments based on ethical principles
Erik Erikson
-
Stages of Psychosocial Development:
- Trust vs. Mistrust: Developing a sense of security and comfort, Mistrust if not fulfilled
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Developing a sense of responsibility and progressive independence, insecurity if not achieved
- Initiative vs. Guilt: Learning to plan and develop judgment, guilt if personal desires and needs are not prioritized
- Industry vs. Inferiority: Meeting societal standards, developing skills and interests, low self-esteem if not accomplished
- Identity vs. Confusion: Developing a sense of self and direction, Identity crisis if not present
- Intimacy vs. Isolation: Developing meaningful relationships, Isolation if not achieved
- Generativity vs. Stagnation: Helping others and future generations, lack of productivity if not met.
- Integrity vs. Despair: Accepting past life, loss of hope if past is not accepted
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Sensation: Occurs when any of the sense organs are stimulated.
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Description
Explore the fascinating concepts of Weber's Law, extrasensory perception, and the various theories of dreams. This quiz covers everything from how we perceive stimuli to the functions of dreams and the impacts of sleep deprivation. Test your understanding of these crucial psychological topics!
