Psychology Chapter 1

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Questions and Answers

What is the systematic error variance called?

Bias (correct)

Random error

True score

Error variance

Which of the following are methods for testing item discriminability?

Extreme group method

Point biserial method

Item characteristic curve

All of the above (correct)

What is a double-barreled item?

An item that measures a construct not related to the intended construct

An item that is too difficult for most students

An item that asks two questions in one (correct)

An item that is too easy for most students

What does the slope of an Item Characteristic Curve (ICC) indicate?

The discriminability of the item (D) Signup and view all the answers

A test is considered reliable if its results are:

consistent and dependable. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which type of validity is concerned with the extent to which a test reflects real-world situations and behaviors?

Ecological validity (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of psychological test?

Neurological test (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of collecting a standardization sample?

To establish a baseline for comparing individual scores. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between a structured personality test and a projective personality test?

Structured tests are based on self-report, while projective tests rely on the interpretation of ambiguous stimuli. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a scale of measurement?

Rational (D) Signup and view all the answers

A histogram is used to visualize:

The frequency of different scores. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following measures of central tendency is most affected by outliers?

Mean (D) Signup and view all the answers

A distribution with a negative skew has:

A tail that extends to the left. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the principle of least squares and how does it relate to the regression line?

The principle of least squares states that the sum of the squared deviations of the observed values from the predicted values should be minimized. This principle is used to find the best fit line that minimizes the overall error or deviation from the actual data points. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between simple linear regression and multiple regression?

Simple linear regression uses one predictor variable to predict the outcome variable, while multiple regression uses two or more predictor variables. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a way to address low reliability?

Decrease the number of items on the test. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What are the five characteristics of a good theory?

Parsimony, testability, empirical support, scope, and predictive power (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the standard error of measurement and what is its relationship to the residuals?

The standard error of measurement is a measure of the average difference between the observed scores and the true scores, while residuals are the deviations between the predicted scores and the observed scores. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the coefficient of determination and what is the purpose of the coefficient of determination?

The coefficient of determination (R-squared) represents the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable that is explained by the independent variable. It is used to assess the goodness of fit of a regression model, indicating how well the model predicts the dependent variable. (C) Signup and view all the answers

To avoid bias, how should error be distributed in a psychological test?

Error should be distributed randomly across all test items. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is shrinkage? What are its consequences?

Shrinkage refers to a decrease in the correlation coefficient when the sample size is increased, resulting in a less accurate prediction of the outcome variable. It leads to a less reliable and accurate prediction of the outcome variable. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Define test and item.

A test is a systematic procedure for observing and describing a person's behavior in a standardized situation. An item is a specific question or task on a test. Signup and view all the answers

Be able to define, recognize, and differentiate between states and traits.

A state is a temporary condition or characteristic of an individual, while a trait is a relatively enduring disposition or characteristic. For example, being in a state of anxiety is temporary, while being a trait of introversion is lasting. Signup and view all the answers

Define achievement, aptitude, and intelligence testing.

Achievement tests measure acquired knowledge and skills in a specific area. Aptitude tests assess an individual's potential or capacity for learning a particular skill or task. Intelligence tests measure general intellectual abilities, such as reasoning and problem-solving. Signup and view all the answers

If a test is reliable, its results are what?

True (A) Signup and view all the answers

What are test batteries?

Test batteries are a collection of multiple tests, typically designed to assess different aspects of a person's abilities or traits. For example, a battery might include tests of cognitive ability, personality, and achievement. Signup and view all the answers

Define standardization. Why is it important to obtain a standardization sample?

Standardization involves establishing a set of uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test. A standardization sample is a large and representative group of individuals who take the test to establish norms and compare future test takers. Signup and view all the answers

Define representative sample and stratified sample. Know when and why representative and stratified samples are collected.

A representative sample mirrors the characteristics of the population of interest in terms of relevant variables. A stratified sample divides the population into subgroups based on specific characteristics and then samples from each subgroup proportionally. Representative samples are collected when researchers aim to generalize findings to a broader population, while stratified samples are used when ensuring representativeness across different subgroups within the population is crucial. Signup and view all the answers

Define hypothetical construct.

A hypothetical construct is a theoretical concept that cannot be directly observed but is inferred from behavior. For example, intelligence is a hypothetical construct that refers to an abstract cognitive ability. Signup and view all the answers

Define operational definition, measurable phenomenon, and hypothetical construct.

An operational definition is a specific procedure or set of operations used to measure a hypothetical construct. A measurable phenomenon is a concrete and observable event or behavior that can be measured. A hypothetical construct is an abstract concept that cannot be directly measured but is inferred from behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between structured and projective personality tests?

Structured personality tests present a standardized set of questions or statements to which individuals respond in a predetermined manner. Projective personality tests present ambiguous stimuli, such as pictures or inkblots, and individuals are asked to interpret them, revealing their underlying thoughts and feelings. Signup and view all the answers

Define psychological testing and psychological assessment. How are they different?

Psychological testing involves using standardized instruments to measure a specific psychological ability, trait, or construct. Psychological assessment is a broader process that involves gathering information from multiple sources, including testing, interviews, and behavioral observations, to evaluate an individual's functioning and provide recommendations. Signup and view all the answers

What is psychometry? What are the two major properties of psychometry?

Psychometry is the scientific study of psychological measurement. The primary properties of psychometry include reliability, which measures the consistency of test scores, and validity, which assesses the accuracy and meaningfulness of test scores. Signup and view all the answers

What are norm- and criterion referenced tests? How is each unique?

Norm-referenced tests compare an individual's performance to that of a representative group, providing a rank or percentile score. Criterion-referenced tests measure an individual's performance against a specific standard or criterion, indicating mastery or proficiency in a skill. Signup and view all the answers

What types of questions are answered by psychologists through assessment?

Psychologists use assessment to answer a wide range of questions related to an individual's cognitive abilities, personality traits, emotional well-being, occupational preferences, and academic performance. They also use assessment to identify potential problems or diagnoses, develop treatment plans, and monitor progress. Signup and view all the answers

In what settings do psychologists assess and what is their primary responsibility in each?

Psychologists assess individuals in a variety of settings, including schools, hospitals, clinics, prisons, and businesses. Their primary responsibility is to gather information, interpret data, and provide recommendations to help individuals understand their strengths and weaknesses, solve problems, and make informed decisions. Signup and view all the answers

What are the three properties of scales that make scales different from one another? Describe each.

The three properties that differentiate scales are order, distance, and origin. Order refers to the relative magnitude of values, distance refers to the equal intervals between values, and origin refers to a true zero point. Signup and view all the answers

Know the four scales of measurement and be able to differentiate between these scales.

Ordinal (A), Interval (B), Nominal (C), Ratio (D) Signup and view all the answers

Define frequency distribution and histogram? What kind of data are shown in each?

A frequency distribution is a table or graph that summarizes the number of times each value or score appears in a dataset. A histogram is a type of bar graph that visualizes a frequency distribution, with bars representing each value or range of values and the height of the bar representing the frequency. Signup and view all the answers

Understand the concept of percentiles.

Percentiles divide a dataset into 100 equal parts, with each percentile representing the percentage of values below a specific point. For example, the 25th percentile represents the value below which 25% of scores fall. Signup and view all the answers

Think of concrete examples of each of the different scales of measurement.

Nominal: Gender (male, female, non-binary), Color of car (red, blue, green). Ordinal: Rankings of teams in a tournament (1st, 2nd, 3rd). Interval: Temperature measured in Fahrenheit or Celsius (no true zero point). Ratio: Height (has a true zero point). Signup and view all the answers

Define central tendency. Know the three types of central tendency and how to calculate each.

Central tendency refers to a measure of the typical or average value in a dataset. The three types of central tendency are mean, median, and mode. The mean is calculated by summing all values and dividing by the total number of values. The median is the middle value when the data is ordered from least to greatest. The mode is the most frequent value. Signup and view all the answers

Know the advantages and disadvantages of the different measures of central tendency and when to use them.

The mean is sensitive to outliers and is best for symmetrical distributions. The median is less affected by outliers and is better for skewed distributions. The mode is useful for categorical data but is insensitive to outliers and may not be unique. Choose the measure that is most appropriate for your specific data distribution and research goal. Signup and view all the answers

Define variance and standard deviation.

Variance is the average of squared deviations from the mean, reflecting the spread of scores. Standard deviation is the square root of variance, providing a more interpretable measure of the spread. Signup and view all the answers

Understand Normal Distribution conceptually.

The normal distribution is a bell-shaped curve, symmetrical around the mean. Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores found at the extremes. It is a common pattern found in many natural phenomena and is frequently used in statistical inference. Signup and view all the answers

Define skewness and be able to identify positive and negative skew.

Skewness measures the asymmetry of a distribution. A positive skew indicates a longer tail to the right of the mean, while a negative skew indicates a longer tail to the left of the mean. Signup and view all the answers

Define kurtosis and be able to identify its different types, including leptokurtic, platykurtic, and mesokurtic.

Kurtosis measures the peakedness or flatness of a distribution. Leptokurtic distributions are more peaked than the normal distribution, while platykurtic distributions are flatter. Mesokurtic distributions have the same peakedness as the normal distribution. Signup and view all the answers

What is a z score? How is it calculated?

A z-score is a standardized score that indicates how many standard deviations a raw score is above or below the mean. It is calculated by subtracting the mean from the raw score and then dividing by the standard deviation. Signup and view all the answers

How are T scores different from Z scores?

T-scores are a type of standardized score that has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. They are used to express scores on a more user-friendly scale than z-scores, which can be difficult to interpret for many individuals. Signup and view all the answers

What are quartiles? What is Interquartile range?

Quartiles divide a dataset into four equal parts, with the first quartile (Q1) representing the 25th percentile, the second quartile (Q2) representing the 50th percentile (also known as the median), and the third quartile (Q3) representing the 75th percentile. The interquartile range (IQR) is the difference between the third and first quartiles, reflecting the spread of the middle 50% of the scores. Signup and view all the answers

Define norm, norming, and standardization. For what is each used?

A norm is a set of data that describes the typical performance of a specific population on a particular test. Norming refers to the process of establishing norms for a test by administering it to a representative sample. Standardization is the process of developing and administering a test in a uniform way, ensuring that all test takers are given the same instructions and have the same opportunity to demonstrate their abilities. Signup and view all the answers

Define and differentiate between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests.

Norm-referenced tests compare an individual's performance to that of a normative group, providing a rank or percentile score. Criterion-referenced tests measure an individual's performance against a specific standard or criterion, indicating mastery or proficiency in a skill. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Chapter 1

Test and Items: Defines tests and individual items within a test.
States and Traits: Differentiates between states and traits.
Types of Testing: Defines achievement, aptitude, and intelligence tests.
Test Reliability: Reliable tests produce consistent results.
Test Batteries: Collections of various tests.
Standardization: Importance of standardization samples for representative and stratified samples.
Representative/Stratified Samples: Sampling methods for a representative sample.
Hypothetical Construct: A concept that can't be directly observed.
Operational Definition: Defining a construct in measurable terms.
Measurable Phenomenon: Observable aspects of a hypothetical construct.
Personality Tests: Distinguishes structured and projective personality testing.
Psychological Testing/Assessment: Differentiates testing and assessment.
Psychometry: Science of psychological assessment; properties include reliability and validity.
Norm-Referenced/Criterion-Referenced Tests: Tests assessing performance relative to norms or criteria.
Psychological Assessment Settings: Locations psychologists conduct assessments and their responsibilities.

Chapter 2

Properties of Scales: Three properties distinguishing different scales of measurement.
Scales of Measurement: Four scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
Frequency Distribution/Histogram: Represents data frequencies and distributions.
Percentiles: Values representing percentages of data below a specific point.
Central Tendency: Mean, median, and mode.
Variance/Standard Deviation: Measuring data dispersion.
Normal Distribution: Characteristics of normal distributions.
Skewness: Direction of data deviation from the normal distribution.
Kurtosis: Describes the peak and tails of a frequency distribution.
Z scores: Standardized scores relative to the mean and standard deviation.
T scores: Standardized scores with a mean of 50 and standard deviation of 10.
Quartiles/Interquartile Range: Values dividing data into fourths and representing the middle 50%.
Norm-Referenced/Criterion-Referenced: Tests are categorized as such.
Error Distribution: Error distribution in psychological tests for bias avoidance.

Chapter 3

Characteristics of a Good Theory: Five characteristics of a good theory.
Scatterplot: A visual representation of correlation.
Correlation Coefficient: Strength and direction of a linear relationship.
Correlation vs. Causation: Importance of distinguishing correlation from causation.
Regression Line: Line of best fit in a scatterplot.
Pearson Product Moment Correlation: Measures the linear relationship between variables.
Residuals: Differences between observed and predicted values.
Standard Error of Estimate: Measures the variability of data around the regression line.
Shrinkage: Reduction in effectiveness to account for factors due to sample size.

Chapter 4

Reliability: Consistency of a measure.
Measurement Error: Factors contributing to errors in measurement.
Classical Test Score Theory: Theoretical framework for understanding test scores.
Observed Scores: Observed test scores and their components
Parallel/Alternate Forms Reliability: Reliability assessed using different versions of a test.
Split Half Reliability: Measure reliability by dividing a test into halves.
Internal Consistency Reliability: Assessing reliability through within-test consistency.
Inter-Rater Reliability: Consistency between different raters.
Factors Affecting Reliability: Potential elements influencing the reliability of measurements.
Standard Error of Measurement: Standard deviation of individual differences in scores (reliability).

Chapter 6

Test Development Stages: Steps involved in test development.
Validity and Reliability: Concepts of validity and reliability and their types.
Types of Questions (Formats): Dichotomous and polytomous formats distinguished.
Summative Scales: Types and data creation.
Likert Format: Type of measurement scale.
Item Analysis: Process for evaluating test items using methods like item difficulty and item discriminability.

General

Norms: Standards for comparison in test scores.
Hypothetical Construct and Operational Definition: Relationship explored regarding hypothetical constructs.
Test Formats: Pros and cons of selected-response and constructed-response tests.
Testing and Assessment: Differences explained between testing and assessment.
Descriptive Statistics (mean, median, mode): Used for calculating data's central tendency.
5 Steps to Create a Measure: Steps involved in hypothetical construct developments.
Reliability Estimation: Different facets of reliability estimation.
Types of Measurement Scales (for temperature/other constructs): Consideration for different methods including scale qualities and advantages/disadvantages of each.
Item Quality Assessment: Evaluating good psychometrically-sound items for testing.

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Description

This quiz covers the fundamental concepts of psychological testing and assessment as presented in Chapter 1. Key topics include the differentiation between states and traits, types of testing, reliability, and standardization methods. Explore the essentials of psychometry and personality testing to enhance your understanding.