Psychology Assessments and Research Methods

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Questions and Answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes a limitation of correlational studies?

Correlational studies always measure the presumed causal variable directly.

Correlational studies cannot eliminate the influence of unknown third variables. (correct)

Correlational studies are inherently more accurate than experimental studies.

Correlational studies can definitively establish causation between variables.

What is a common issue associated with experimental research as highlighted in the content?

Experiments can guarantee accurate manipulation of the independent variable.

Experiments always provide realistic levels of variables.

Experiments may require ethical deception to control variables. (correct)

Experiments effectively assess natural behaviors without limitations.

In the context of assessing clients, why is personality assessment deemed essential?

It facilitates ethical treatment planning and insurance reimbursement. (correct)

It primarily focuses on correcting personality disorders.

It ensures clients receive experimental treatments.

It exclusively determines cognitive abilities.

Which of the following is true regarding the differences between correlational and experimental research?

Experimental research is limited in what it can reveal about real-world frequency and magnitude of effects. Signup and view all the answers

Which statistical tests are suggested to have minor differences despite their different applications?

F and t-tests. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of validity checks how well a measure predicts an appropriate outcome?

Predictive Validity Signup and view all the answers

What does concurrent validity measure?

The correlation between new and existing measures of the same construct Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best represents an example of face validity?

An item asking about feelings of sadness in a depression test Signup and view all the answers

Which type of validity focuses on the relationship between a measure and external criteria?

Criterion Validity Signup and view all the answers

Which of these validity types emphasizes its importance in accurately representing an underlying construct?

Construct Validity Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily required in the exploration of the unknown in psychology research?

Gathering data Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of personality data source?

V Data Signup and view all the answers

What is a key advantage of using self-reports (S Data) in personality research?

They offer a large amount of information. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common disadvantage of self-reports (S Data) in personality assessment?

They can lead to the fish-and-water effect. Signup and view all the answers

In what way does I Data (informant data) contribute to understanding personality?

It aggregates impressions from others who know the individual. Signup and view all the answers

Which disadvantage is associated with self-reports in personality measurement?

They may reflect the desire for privacy or faking. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant advantage of I Data regarding the information it provides?

It captures behaviors in many situations with judgments from multiple informants. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of data would best be described as the ‘results’ of personality?

L Data Signup and view all the answers

What contributes to the complexity of measuring personality traits accurately?

Personality is inferred from observable indicators. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a noted disadvantage of I Data?

It highly emphasizes extreme or unusual behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What classifies L Data as particularly valuable?

It is obtained from objective and verifiable archival records. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key challenge associated with Natural B Data?

Desired contexts for observation rarely occur. Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is a disadvantage of Laboratory B Data?

It allows for a range of contexts but poses interpretation challenges. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concern regarding the use of I Data in personality assessments?

It is influenced by biases such as stereotypes and prejudices. Signup and view all the answers

What contributes to the multidetermined nature of L Data?

It results from a synthesis of multiple data sources. Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary value of using B Data in general?

It can capture involuntary physiological responses. Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary advantage of projective tests like the Rorschach Inkblot?

They help break the ice in clinical settings. Signup and view all the answers

What criticism is commonly associated with the validity of projective tests?

There is a lack of consistency in scoring and interpretation. Signup and view all the answers

Which method is described as being linked to Freud’s concept of the unconscious?

Projective methods Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects a disadvantage of projective testing?

They are often misused in clinical practice. Signup and view all the answers

What does the research by Kosinski, Stillwell, & Graepel suggest about Facebook likes?

They can accurately predict certain personality traits and characteristics. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant limitation noted regarding the Rorschach test's responses?

There is no agreed-upon scoring system. Signup and view all the answers

Why might projective tests be favored by some clinicians despite their limitations?

They offer deep insights into unconscious motives. Signup and view all the answers

What demographic factors were included in the analysis of Facebook likes by Kosinski and colleagues?

Age, gender, political views, and religion. Signup and view all the answers

What is one advantage of using self-report measures (S data) in personality assessment?

They provide insights into a person's internal states. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the case method in research design?

It involves detailed study of a single event or individual. Signup and view all the answers

How does correlational research differ from experimental research?

Experimental research focuses on the impact of an independent variable. Signup and view all the answers

What does the phrase 'Correlation does not equal causality' imply?

Understanding the relationship between variables requires more than correlation data. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of personality assessment, what is an example of B data?

Direct observation of someone’s behavior in a social setting. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of quasi-experimental research?

It assigns participants to conditions based on existing characteristics. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of correlational research?

Exploring the relationships and associations between variables. Signup and view all the answers

What type of data is typically used to assess life outcomes (L data) in personality studies?

Documents that record significant life events and achievements. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Arts Degree Advice Session

Wednesday, September 14th
Time: 6:00 PM - 7:00 PM
Location: AMB-1021, O'hEocha Theatre
Registration: Careers Connect

Research Methods in Personality

Data and Design

Psychology's Emphasis on Method

Goal: Continuously improve tentative answers to questions.
Focus: Thinking and seeking new knowledge.
Research: Exploration of the unknown, requires data gathering.

Measuring Personality

Psychological triad (thoughts, feelings, behaviors) cannot be directly observed.
Personality is inferred from observable aspects.
No perfect measures exist.

Sources of Information

S Data: Self-report (thoughts, feelings, etc.)
I Data: Informant data (based on information from others like partners, parents, friends, teachers)
L Data: Life data (verifiable life history like marriage, employment)
B Data: Behavioral observations (lab and real-life contexts).

Self-reports (S Data)

Open-ended questions
Surveys/questionnaires
High face validity

Ratings by others (I data)

Direct observer report
Peer ratings

Advantages of S Data

Large amount of information
Self-awareness, introspection
Access to internal experiences
Causal force (self-efficacy, self-verification)
Simple and easy to collect

Disadvantages of S Data

Bias
Overly positive or negative views
Desire for privacy, faking
Errors (fish-and-water effect, memory distortion, lack of self-insight)
Carelessness

Advantages of I Data

Large amount of information from many perspectives
Real-world basis
Common sense understanding of context
Insight into causal force (reputation and expectations)
Definitional truth

Disadvantages of I Data

Limited behavioral information
Lack of access to private experience
Error (remembering extremes/unusual/emotionally arousing behaviors)
Bias (letter of recommendation effect, prejudices, and stereotypes).

Life Outcomes (L) Data

Obtained from archival records or self-report.
Assess the long-term results or consequences of personality traits.
Archival records Advantages/disadvantages.
Results, "residue", of personality.

Advantages and Disadvantages of L Data

Objective and verifiable data.
Intrinsic importance and psychological relevance.
Potential disadvantage: multidetermination (many factors impact life outcomes).

B-Data (Behavioral Data): Naturalistic Observation

Observations in natural settings (or as close as possible)
Hybrid approaches (e.g., social media, self-reports on naturalistic observations)
Experience sampling method, diary studies, ambulatory assessment, ecological momentary assessment.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Natural B Data

Realistic representation of behavior.
Disadvantages: Difficulty, rarity of desired contexts

B-Data (Behavioral Data): Laboratory B Data

Create situations to observe behavior.
Examine reactions to situations.
Represent real-world contexts difficult to observe.
Physiological measures (involuntary responses).

Advantages & Disadvantages of Laboratory B Data

Wide variety of contexts
Appearance of objectivity
Disadvantages: Difficult, expensive, uncertain interpretation

Discussion: S Data and I Data

Aspects of personality likely and unlikely to be accurately reported.
Accuracy of evaluations from peers, coworkers, and parents.

Mixed Types of Data

Data commonly don't fit into one category.
Multiple data types are relevant to personality.
Each type has advantages and disadvantages.

Research Design

What method to use?

Case Study

Involves closely studying events or a person within real-life context.
Generates new ideas tested in larger studies using various methods.
Clinical experience building theories.

Correlational Research

Looks at the relationship between two variables.
Focuses on variations, correlation, and individual differences.
Correlation does not equal causation.

Experimental Research

Manipulates independent variable (IV) under controlled conditions observing dependent variable (DV).
Focuses on central tendencies, not variations.
Direct causal effects of IV on DV are analyzed.
Cannot manipulate personality traits.
Quasi-experiments use existing personality traits to assign participants to conditions.
Experimental research complexities: uncertainty about manipulation, third-variable problem, difficulty in creating realistic levels of traits.

Personality Assessment

Treatment planning.
Ethical issues and insurance reimbursement.
Diagnosis and behavior cluster summaries.
Assessing client behavior.

Personality Tests: Objective Tests

Specific questions (yes/no, true/false, multiple choice).
Computer-administered.
Quick scoring, analysis, and interpretation.
Validity and subjectivity of test items.
Number of items and reliability (aggregation principle and Spearman-Brown formula).

Constructing Personality Tests

Rational method: Questions directly related to constructs.
Factor analysis: Statistical method to group related items into factors.

Two Approaches to Assessment Development

Rational (Theoretical): Starts with a concept, selects items, tests validity and reliability.
Empirical (Data-Based): Empirically driven from many items, statistical methods for item selection.

Methods of Objective Test Construction:

Rational: Items identical meaning for test-taker and creator, self-assessment capability, accurate reporting, validating items. Most common.
Factor analytic: Create long list of objective items, administer to many subjects, analyze items that cluster together (factors), name and describe the factor.
Empirical: Generate items, divide subjects into groups, administer test, compare answers from the different groups, cross validation.

When Are Different Methods Used?

Rational approach used in theory building, empirical approach used in practical needs such as vocational interests/occupational assessment.

Methods of Objective Test Construction (combined methods)

Generate items using the rational method, analyze responses with factor analysis, and correlate factors with independent criteria.

Projective Assessments

Person responds to vague stimuli, interpreting how they relate to personality.
Everyone expected to have different interpretations.
Assessment is now moving away from norm-referenced tests.
Structured interviews rather than "tests" are encouraged.

Projective Assessments: Types

TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) —Story creation from pictures.
Draw-A-Person test: Drawing reveals aspects of personality.
Rorschach inkblot test — Reactions to inkblots reveal unconscious mind.

Projective Methods

Often used by clinical psychologists linking to Freud's ideas.
B-data.
Word association/Sentence completion tests- used in projective methods.

Advantages of Projective Methods

Helpful in breaking the ice (initial contact with subject)
Skilled clinicians can sometimes extract nuanced information not found in controlled research.
Limited support for validity of the tests, notably the Rorschach test.

Disadvantages of Projective Methods

Validity evidence is scarce.
Expensive and time-consuming to administer.
Psycholgists cannot be sure about the meaning of responses.
Other, less expensive tests might give more useful results, and these are better used.
Inappropiate use and practice.

Projective Tests - Critique

"Nobody agrees..." — No objective scoring, meaning dependent on responders.

Objective vs. Projective Tests - Validity/Reliability

Which is more valid and reliable: Objective vs Projective?

Modern Personality Tests?

Combination of data and methods, possibly including data from social media.

Facebook Likes and Personality

Facebook likes (average 170 per person) analyzed to predict personality traits such as social openness and extraversion but also intelligence, race, religion, sexual orientation and political beliefs.
Demographic information also collected, such as age, gender, relationship status, political views and more.

Personality Tests: Examples

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Description

This quiz covers key concepts in psychology regarding the limitations of correlational studies, the importance of experimental research, and the different types of validity in assessments. Test your understanding of how various research methods contribute to psychological evaluations and the interpretation of personality assessments.