Psychology and Sociology

Psychology & Related Fields

• Related disciplines of psychology involve natural science, social science, and humanities
• Clinical psychology assesses and treats mental illness, abnormal behavior, and psychiatric problems
• Counseling psychology focuses on patients' mental distress, treating various psychological symptoms (anxiety, depression)
• Health psychology aims to improve health across domains by promoting healthy behaviors and is linked to policies
• Behavioral neuroscience studies the brain, neurons, and nervous system to understand their influence on thoughts, feelings, and behavior (Phineas Gage)
• Business psychology seeks to improve workplace productivity, efficiency, and employee wellbeing through employee attitudes, behaviors, leadership, and organizational processes

Sociology

• Individual and society, in sociology, are inseparable
• Sociologists study all levels of society at both micro and macro level of analysis
• Instead of individual expression, sociologists focus on behaviors shaped by social groups and study social factors like laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, fashions, and rituals

Social Psychology

• Social psychology involves studying people within a social environment
• It is the scientific investigation of how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others (Allport, 1954)

Theoretical Perspectives

• Major theoretical perspectives include behavioral, cognitive psychology, neuroscience & biochemistry
• Other major theoretical perspectives include evolutionary social psychology, personality & individual differences, and collectivist theories

Explaining Psychology

• Cognitive dissonance occurs when people have opposite opinions, causing uncomfortable feelings and leading them to adopt coping strategies
• The backfire effect strengthens an original opinion when confronted with contradictory information

Manager skills

• Managers require Interpersonal skills (leader, liaison, figurehead), informational, and decisional skills

Social Cognition

• Social cognition are cognitive processes and structures that influence and are influenced by social behavior
• It is mainly automatic, unconscious, influences how people perceive the world forming impressions

Two trait forms

• Central traits: Influence the meaning of other traits, impressions are mostly based on it; warm, cold
• Peripheral traits: polite, blunt

Perception

• Order in which information is presented profoundly affects impression formation, with primacy and recency effects
• Schema are knowledge about a concept.
• Schemas include representation of person/group/object/event
• Schemas include set of interrelated thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes
• Schemas are used to activate understanding and adapt to the situation
• Schemas need categorization of the person, event or situation, to apply them

Perception

• Perception is a process to give meaning to sensory impressions
• What people perceive can differ substantially from objective reality
• Behaviors are based on perception of reality
• Perception is affected by experiences, contextual factors, attention, attitude
• Other factors affecting perception are expectations, culture, emotions, and personality

Decision Making

• Dual-process model uses 2 systems
• System 1 is: Common to all species (even birds and insects), Fast, automatic and effortless, Based on associations, Influenced by experiences and emotions
• Systems 2: Specific to human beings and higher animals, Slow, controlled and effortful, Based on deductions, Neutral and free from emotions

Shortcuts

• Availability: Cognitive shortcut in which frequency or likelihood of an event drives the judgment

Identity

• Concept of self is a relatively new idea
• Preceding that was: Social rank, family membership, birth order, etc
• The individual self was not considered much

Changes impacting perception of self

• Changes impacting the perception of self are secularization, industrialization, enlightenment and psychoanalysis
• "Looking glass self" means people perceive themselves as they think other people perceive them
• Subjects pretending to be emotionally unstable believed it to be true if perceived as such

Self Schemas

• Schema is one's knowledge about a concept – a set of interrelated thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes
• People have self-schemas
• Self-schemas include representations of one's self about characteristics (sports, cooking)
• How people feel about themselves and behave is influenced by these schemas
• If perceive ourselves as “bad at it” = less likely to do something

Self-Discrepancy theory

• Self-discrepancy theory describes that we have 3 types of self-schemas
• Actual Self: How we currently are
• Ideal Self: How we would like to be
• Ought Self: How we think we should be
• The ideal and ought selves are “self-guides”
• Negative feelings arise from discrepancies between selves

Regulatory Focus theory

• People seek to reduce feelings by pursuing promotion or prevention:
• Promotion System: Includes reaching one's ideal and achieving positive outcomes like running a marathon
• Prevention system: Includes reaching "oughts" and avoiding negative outcomes like avoiding failing exams

Social Comparison

• Self-knowledge & social comparison happens through estimating level
• Mostly conscious or unconscious
• Downwards comparison is used to protect perception of self and avoid upward comparisons
• Social comparison has positive feelings
• Something is done to restore a persons self-esteem or self-image

Social Influence

• Common to change behavior after a request from parent as they are an authority
• Been taught to follow those who have authority
• Behavior is changed after a request
• Social influence is the process whereby attitudes and behaviors are influenced by the real or implied presence of others
• Social life involves conflict of individuals or groups change the thoughts, feelings, or behaviors of others

Groups

• Groups can be: Reference groups or membership groups
• Reference groups are: Groups to which one feels closely related, has a great influence on attitudes & behaviors
• Membership groups are: Groups we belong to without feeling a sense of belonging, has little influence on attitudes and behaviors

Obedience experiment

• Obedience experiment: Nurses - Participants; request from an unknown doctor on the phone
• 95% of those nurses obeyed

Factors of an experiment

• Possible explanation:
• Sadistic people - NO. Showed extreme distress in videotapes
• Legitimacy of the authority figure: People abdicated responsibilities
• Novelty of the situation: Absense of alternative model
• Proximity to experimenter: Proximity of the experimenter and distance of the learner

Group dynamic

• Dropped % of obedience by 10
• Group process encompasses individual and several social identities
• Dominant social identity changes depend upon the context
• Member community, clubs, societies

Group Socialization

• Group socialization is a dynamic structures that change continuously over time
• Members can: Leave or join
• Members: Socialized by the group/shaped by the group

Tuckman’s stages of group development

• Forming: Familiarization
• Storming: Disagreements on goals and practices
• Norming: Common identity and purpose emerge
• Performing: Works smoothly as a unit, shared norms and goals
• Adjourning: Dissolution due to goal completion or loss of interest

Defining group membership:

• Group norms are attitudinal and behavioral uniformities which define group membership and differentiate between groups
• Group Norms are characterized by uniform attitudes and behaviours
• Group Norms define membership
• Provide frame of reference to guide behaviors

Group study

• Students classified as liberal or conservative were split into liberal dorms and conservative sororities
• Results: Conservatives were less conservative in liberal dorms than the conservatists in conservative dorms
• Individual behavior in the work place is associated with group norms
• Group norms involve absenteeism, lateness, damage, inappropriate language and conflict or aggression

Groupthink

• Group decision and group bias: Groupthink; cohesive groups wanting unanimous agreement leads to bad decision-making
• Groupthink – Janis, 1972: US intercepted Japanese messages but didn't take Pearl Harbor warning seriously
• Assumed Japan would never attack the US, fleet concentration was a deterrent, fleet could detect/destroy Japanese
• Always consider the diff outcomes and alternatives

Group Polarization

• Group polarization aims to test effect
• Procedure= Read a story with an uncertain outcome
• Study to undertake:
• High status university or lower one
• Football captain make a tie play or one to win
• People take more extreme decisions in groups compared to as individuals
• Risky people in a group take risky decisions or cautious people, cautious decisions

General feelings & attitudes

• WEEK 6 is all about general feelings and attitude of persuasion
• Attitudes = general feeling/evaluation about a person/object/brand/etc
• Attitudes Include: beliefs, feelings, and behavioral tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events or symbols
• They influence our behavior
• Characteristics include: permanent, persist across time and situations limited to socially significant objects, generalisable

Social Image

• Strong relationship between attitude and behavior
• Social companies influencing attitudes towards

Relations

• If friend has a positive attitude towards someone, you’ll develop a positive attitude to remain consistent, otherwise known as balance theory
• Changing your attitude gets you back to balanced one (those are inconsistent)
• Attitudes are represented in memory -> some more accessible then others
• Recalled more easily and quickly
• More stable and more resistant to change (accessible attitudes)
• Attitudes are strengthened by direct experiences

Norms

• To investigate: The influence of subjective norms (group norms) on the relationship between attitudes and Behavior
• Subjective norm includes: Attitude toward exercise, Subjective norm (group norm), Group identification and exercise intention
• If close circle positive: Stronger to workout

Reasoned Action

• Theory of reasoned action:
• Perceived Behavioral Control
• Investigates to influence the control
• Includes participants: Drinker/Non who had a drinking problem in the past (Measures)
• Measure: Attitude is subjective

Behavior

• All factors contribute to behavior
• Formation of Attitudes= Direct exposure = objects shape opinion
• Mere Exposure effect = enhance attitudes (flatmate marmite)
• Influence attitude toward the Stimulus
• Classic Conditioning: Associates neutral objects
• Attitud3es learned: family members
• Third effect: Reading a story + asking people how it influenced you and other

Prosocial Behavior:

• Is a manner that is well direct

Biological Factors

• Aggression is always goal oriented, it has a purpose
• Beneficial and adapted= Advantages over the opposition
• Most Species Show Aggressive Behavior
• Develop it quickly (unlearned) gets more intense with age

Evolutionary Social Pysch

• Evolutionary Psych claims: Aggression has Evolved b/c this promotes the survival of genes
• Adaptive behaviour= Help someone to survive
• Can give and economic advantage

Biology Limitations

• Not Valid to the newest research: Biological reasons are not valid
• Energy too unknown and we cant measure it
• Supported by limited and biases with actual Behaviour

More Agression

• The Hypo: Agression is always caused with some situations
• Always lead with agression
• This has applied with many situations
• Limits of the Social Aspects

Violence

• Requires more than frustration, happens without
• Is difficult to predict what kind of frustration leads to agression

Social factors

• How its Learned: How Behavior is rewarded Vs Punished
• Test the Learning of Vicarious Experiments

Procedure + results

• Adul Behaving Aggressively towards Bobo Doll
• Real life, Video, Cartoon , NO agression
• Level of Ag: BOIS = Higher, saw some attacjed -> were more aggresive
• Applied with tv/cartoon (not to be real)

Life patterns

• Week 7= Aggressive comes sooner in life and is stable behavior
• Chatharic Hypothesis
• Social behavior = Is positive and contributes to wellbeing

Prejudice

• Discrimination pre recorded week 8 (bias + hate)
• Managed great in Medical advances. Never in wars/genocide
• Defs: An unfavorable attitude
• Is the expression of = Prejudice

Stereotype

• Is a wildly shared image
• In 1934: Can prejudice lead to Discrimination
• Procedure: Went tour with China friends
• 2. DO you have Chinese

Discrimination

• Bias and prejudice are different:
• Prejudice: STima against someone
• Discrimination : DOn't serve + treat equally
• Labels will led to : Discrimination + Marg

Effects

• Is influenced if: The stigma has
• Visibility: CAN hide in public
• Controllability: Think stigma can be Controlled

Source of Prejudice

• Prejudiced is not born; its formed with these -
• Pysachic, Behavior and Classical

Persistence

• The label of another= Decressing the others' value.
• Comparing: Stigmatizing Downard the Target

Targets

• The stereotypes

Stereotypes

• Ex: Is Competent for men but a Women must provide warm
• " Women are Nice, Men are Smart"

Racism

• Is a War between Global scale
• Now is Condemned
• Express Diff- (Not Gone

Roger and Roger

• Used Subtle techniques: (Shocks based on heart rate)

Subtle Shock

• Behavior shock= Bias Shock

Ageism

• IS a Bias to value diffrence based on what People Born in
• Can change terms of: Thinking, asporations Behaviors
• Used Catatories based of Generation

Generation types

• 1925 = loyal
• 1945 = WorkHollic's
• 1961 = Balance life and work
• 1981 =Tech savvy / meaningful
• 2000: Can do a lot- Rely on media

Workplace

• There is poor Pre: -Forms. Resist change and Learn slowly
• Limited commitment: Young = QUICK+ Less Loyal
• Orientation is the bias

Harmfull

• Impacts Workplace/ Bias impacts the aspects
• Is a positive Env

Theorys

• Theory is a Leadership
• Early theory of what leaders need to be
• Great person = Stereotypical Men

After that:

• 1 style good for everyone
• Researches lead to : FIEDLORS decision + Normal Dec

Leadership

• Path + Partner + Situational Styles

Lead to Cat:

• Theorys + Characteristics + Exchance

To lead = DOnt Fear / or: Conviced to adhered

• You Must " get this and want it = EISHOWER

• Enhacnes and Contribution = GROUP/2004

• Lead = positive imact+ beahvior

• No Lead /w foller. REll with Leader+folll

• Help Collecitve Goals

• To not: POWER ov

• Help things b/c= Want + Need

Differences

• No diff in lead between M/F

• In the workplace they get low places.

• Study done= Who is the leader

• 29 not said , 55 m and 20 said = Wom

• Made or born= No Traits

Is there :

_ Determineate and Social

• Only in 80's similarites: All but 5 traits

All the Qualities- LEad to the 5 Big:

• O = Risk + Open Mind , C= Prioritise work and E= extra vert

Better with:

• C and E

What Can help Personality:

• Good leader but NOT Enough- MUST BE MADE
• Ohio Study= 2 Main: Inative the process+ consideration
• Define Roles: and work force to do it

Trust

• Resoect all
• Combinations needed : inative+ Consider

MIchi Stud: Made similar Points=

• Pro: ORI+ Emphaisce technical points
• Epm Ori: Emphaised with relationships