Questions and Answers
Which stage is NOT part of Freud's Psychosexual Development?
What is the main criticism of psychoanalytic theories?
Which of the following is a concept associated with Erik Erikson's psychosocial development?
In Behaviorism, what is emphasized as the primary source of learning?
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What does negative reinforcement do to behavior according to operant conditioning?
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Which statement best represents a modern theorist's view compared to Freud's emphasis?
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What aspect of learning does Bandura's theory primarily focus on?
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What role do early experiences with parents play in psychoanalytic theory?
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What role does mental hardware play in Information-Processing Theory?
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What is a key aspect of the output process in information processing?
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Which aspect is viewed positively in cognitive theories of development?
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What is emphasized in the competence-environmental press theory?
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Which criticism is commonly associated with ecological theories?
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What does the life span perspective suggest about development?
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What is essential for the likelihood of imitation according to observational learning?
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What is the principle behind selective optimization with compensation?
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What do storage processes involve in information processing?
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Which of the following statements best describes self-efficacy?
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Which stage of Piaget's cognitive development includes the ability to use symbols?
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Which aspect is emphasized by Lev Vygotsky in his theory of cognitive development?
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In which stage do children develop the ability to hold a mental representation of objects?
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What does the Zone of Proximal Development refer to in Vygotsky's theory?
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Which stage in Piaget's theory involves thinking abstractly and dealing with hypothetical concepts?
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Which criticism is associated with Skinner's behavioral approach?
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What term describes the developing human once the implanted zygote is fully embedded in the uterine wall?
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During which weeks does the Period of the Fetus occur?
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What are the three layers that begin to form in the embryo?
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What is the primary function of the amnion in embryonic development?
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What is indicated by the cephalocaudal principle in embryonic development?
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What can increased stress in a pregnant woman lead to regarding fetal development?
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What does the age of viability refer to during fetal development?
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How does inadequate nutrition during pregnancy affect the infant?
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At what age range is prenatal development most likely to proceed normally?
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In what way does stress impact prenatal development according to the information provided?
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Which teratogen is associated with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)?
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What is a potential consequence of advanced maternal age during pregnancy?
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Which statement is true about the impact of teratogens?
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Which of the following is NOT a category of teratogens?
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What is the role of genetic counseling in prenatal care?
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How can prenatal diagnosis be beneficial?
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Study Notes
Psychoanalytic Theories
- Development is primarily understood through conscious experiences, emphasizing symbolic meanings of behavior.
- Early parental experiences significantly shape individual development.
- The five stages of psychosexual development include oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages, each resolving specific conflicts impacting adult personality.
- Modern theorists shift the focus from sexual instincts to cultural experiences in development.
Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Development
- Erikson proposed eight universal stages of psychosocial development, characterized by unique struggles.
- Development follows the epigenetic principle, with specific periods crucial for each psychosocial strength.
Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theories
- Contributions include focus on development frameworks, family dynamics, and the unconscious mind.
- Criticisms involve lack of scientific support, excessive emphasis on sexuality, and a generally negative view of human nature.
Behaviorism
- J.B. Watson emphasized that behavior should be studied scientifically, focusing only on observable actions.
- Development is attributed to learned behaviors through environmental interactions.
- Watson's research supporting these claims was limited.
Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
- Behavior consequences influence their repetition, with positive/negative reinforcement and punishment as key terms.
- Learning occurs through observation and imitation, heightened by models perceived as competent or rewarded.
Cognitive Developmental Theory
- Focuses on the evolution of thought processes; interaction shapes cognitive development.
- Notable theorists:
- Jean Piaget identified discrete stages of cognitive development that increase in complexity.
- Lev Vygotsky emphasized socio-cultural influences and learning as an apprenticeship experience.
- Information-processing theory likens cognitive development to computer efficiency.
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
- Sensorimotor (birth-2 years): Development of mental representations.
- Pre-operational (2-7 years): Symbol use and egocentrism.
- Concrete Operational (7 years to adolescence): Logic application, but limited hypotheticals.
- Formal Operational (adolescence and beyond): Abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning.
Vygotsky's Contributions
- Stresses the role of culture and socio-environmental factors in development.
- Introduces the Zone of Proximal Development, where guided learning occurs, and concepts of scaffolding for support.
Information-Processing Theory
- Compares cognitive processing to computer operations, including input, storage, and output processes.
- Highlights internal mechanisms for memory and cognitive strategy improvement as individuals mature.
Evaluating Cognitive Theories
- Contributions include a constructive view of learning and development.
- Criticisms involve questioning the linearity of Piaget’s stages and insufficient attention to individual differences.
Competence-Environmental Press Theory (Lawton and Nahemow)
- Suggests optimal developmental fit between personal abilities and environmental demands leads to effective adaptation.
- Interplay between macro and micro environmental systems is emphasized, yet biological and cognitive factors are considered inadequate.
Current Perspectives on Development
- Life span perspective acknowledges multiple influencing factors in development.
- Selective optimization with compensation covers how choices shape aging and development.
Prenatal Development Stages
- Embryo development involves rapid changes with three cellular layers forming (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) and major body structures appearing.
- The fetus period (weeks 9-38) is characterized by significant growth, particularly in the brain, with systems beginning to function.
- The age of viability is between 22 to 28 weeks, where survival chances improve significantly.
Influences on Prenatal Development
- Nutrition impacts fetal health—adequate caloric and nutrient intake is essential.
- Stress during pregnancy can adversely affect fetal development, impacting oxygen flow and overall health.
- Maternal age plays a role, with optimal pregnancy occurring between 20-35 years; younger and older mothers face increased risks.
Teratogens
- Teratogens, including drugs, diseases, and environmental hazards, can disrupt normal prenatal development.
- Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS); awareness of environmental teratogens is crucial.
Impact of Teratogens
- Their effects depend on the organism's genotype, exposure period, and dosage.
- Impact varies across prenatal stages and may have later-life repercussions.
Prenatal Diagnosis and Counseling
- Genetic counseling helps assess risks of passing disorders to offspring.
- Prenatal diagnostics ensure normal progression of fetal development.
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Description
Explore the key concepts of psychoanalytic theories that focus on human development, specifically emphasizing the significance of early experiences and the stages of psychosexual development. Understand how these theories interpret the influence of sexual impulses on personality formation.
