Questions and Answers
What is the main concept behind transposition encryption?
Which of the following is an example of a substitution encryption method?
How does the Caesar cipher determine which letters to substitute?
In T9 texting, what action is taken to type the letter 'H'?
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Which of these shifts would correspond to an 'F' in the Caesar cipher if the shift is 5?
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What happens if the encryption information is easily accessible by unauthorized people?
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If the Caesar cipher's shift is 3, what letter corresponds to 'I'?
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What characterizes substitution ciphers as opposed to transposition ciphers?
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How many times do you need to tap the button for the letter 'O' using T9 texting?
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What does a substitution cipher replace in a message?
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What is the primary purpose of encryption methods?
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What is a key feature of the Caesar cipher?
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What is an example of a real-world application of substitution encryption?
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What would happen if encryption information was easily accessible by others?
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What is the main difference between transposition and substitution encryption methods?
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What is the name of the encryption method that Julius Caesar used to communicate with his generals?
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How does the Caesar cipher determine the shift?
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What is a characteristic of substitution ciphers?
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What is the purpose of the shift in the Caesar cipher?
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What is an advantage of using encryption methods?
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What is a key responsibility of citizenship in a digital world?
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What is typically needed to access websites or login to online accounts?
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What is an advantage of using strong passwords?
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What should you avoid including in your password?
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What is the purpose of an authentication measure?
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How many characters should a strong password have at a minimum?
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Why is it important to keep your PII safe?
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What is a characteristic of a strong password?
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What is the primary purpose of multi-factor authentication?
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What is a disadvantage of having accessible PII?
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What can prevent infections and fix errors that could compromise a system?
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What is an example of multi-factor authentication?
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Why is multi-factor authentication more secure than one-step authentication?
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What can password managers generate for online accounts?
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What is a disadvantage of storing PII online?
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What should you do when allowing a new website access to your personal information?
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What is a characteristic of multi-factor authentication?
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What is the purpose of protection software?
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What is the primary goal of a phishing email attack?
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What is a key indicator of a phishing email?
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What is the primary objective of a keylogging attack?
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Why is keylogging considered an unethical practice?
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What makes public networks particularly vulnerable to cyber attacks?
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What can happen if you respond to a phishing email?
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What is a characteristic of a phishing email?
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What can keylogger software do?
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Why are public networks insecure?
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What is the primary risk of using public networks?
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What is the primary function of an access point on a network?
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What is a major risk associated with connecting to a rogue access point?
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What is a key difference between digital and manual files?
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What is a benefit of using digital files?
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What is a limitation of digital files?
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What is file insecurity?
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What can happen to insecure files?
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What is a key feature of digital files?
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What is a benefit of using digital files in businesses?
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Why should users be cautious when connecting to public networks?
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What is the primary objective of encrypting a hard drive and mobile device?
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What is the concept that measures how unpredictable a password is based on the type and combination of characters used and the length of the password?
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What is the purpose of implementing anti-virus software?
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What is the term for ensuring that information is not disclosed to the wrong individuals?
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What is the result of encrypting plaintext?
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What is the benefit of keeping your computer and devices updated?
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What is the primary purpose of implementing the five pillars of cybersecurity?
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What is the calculation for password entropy?
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What is the term for proving the identities of the sender and recipient when transferring information?
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What is the benefit of restricting access to files?
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What is the primary purpose of a white hat hacker?
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What type of hacker would likely charge a fee for reporting vulnerabilities they discover?
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Which of the following is NOT a type of malware?
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What is the primary characteristic of a computer virus?
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How can a computer virus be spread?
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Which of the following is a potential consequence of a virus infection?
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How can you protect yourself from malware?
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of black hat hackers?
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What is the primary difference between a worm and a virus?
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Which of the following is an example of a ransomware attack?
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What is a common challenge in identifying the source of a DDoS attack?
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What is an example of unintended consequences in the digital age?
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What is algorithmic bias?
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What is the Digital Divide?
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What can contribute to programmer bias?
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How do algorithms on social media platforms contribute to algorithmic bias?
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What can be used to predict the types of ads a user might want to see?
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What can determine whether a person has access to the Internet and computers?
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What can be a result of unchecked programmer bias?
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What is a potential risk of the Digital Divide?
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What happens to the letters in a message when using the transposition encryption method?
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What is the purpose of the shift in the Caesar cipher?
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Why was the T9 method of texting used in early cell phones?
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What is a characteristic of substitution ciphers?
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What would happen if encryption information was easily accessible by unauthorized people?
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What is the main difference between transposition and substitution encryption methods?
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What is the purpose of encryption methods like the Caesar cipher?
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What is a real-world application of substitution encryption?
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What is a dictionary attack?
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Which of the following is NOT a type of cybercrime?
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What is the primary goal of a Denial of Service (DoS) attack?
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Why is it generally recommended to avoid using dictionary words in passwords?
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What is the key difference between a DoS attack and a DDoS attack?
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Which of these is a common method used to gain unauthorized access to a system in order to spread malware?
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Which of the following is NOT a type of cyber attack?
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What is the main reason why using personally identifiable information (PII) in passwords is strongly discouraged?
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Why is it important to keep your PII safe?
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What is the primary purpose of encryption methods?
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What is the primary difference between symmetric key encryption and public key encryption?
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Which of the following is NOT a benefit of using symmetric key encryption?
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In the context of encryption, what does 'ciphertext' refer to?
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What is the role of a certificate authority in encryption?
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Which of the following best describes the process of decryption?
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What is the main purpose of using encryption?
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In the context of encryption, what is a 'key'?
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Which of the following is a disadvantage of symmetric key encryption?
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What is the purpose of a public key in public key encryption?
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What is an example of a real-world scenario where encryption is essential?
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What is the primary focus of the open innovation movement?
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Which of the following best describes open access?
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What is one significant benefit of open access repositories?
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How did the Polish Cipher Bureau contribute during World War II?
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What role does cryptography play in today's digital age?
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What is the main function of encryption in cryptography?
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of open access repositories?
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Which ancient civilization is noted for some of the earliest forms of cryptography?
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Which of the following best describes modern cryptography?
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What is a critical aspect of maintaining information security in cryptography?
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Which of the following is NOT a factor contributing to the digital divide?
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What is a key responsibility of programmers in mitigating the negative impacts of computing?
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Which of these options is NOT a potential solution to the digital divide?
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What is a primary purpose of the Digital Millenium Copyright Act (DMCA)?
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Which of the following is NOT an example of infrastructure that contributes to the digital divide?
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How can programmers contribute to addressing the digital divide?
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What is a key element of a programmer's Code of Ethics?
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Which of these options is a potential consequence of ignoring ethical concerns in computing?
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What is a primary challenge in addressing the digital divide?
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Which of the following is NOT a factor that can influence the digital divide?
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Study Notes
Protecting Personally Identifiable Information (PII)
- PII can be collected through devices, websites, and detection hardware and software that track movements and location.
- Safeguarding PII is a key responsibility of citizenship in a digital world.
Authentication Measures
- One-step authentication measures use email and password to secure information.
- Strong passwords should be:
- At least 8-12 characters long
- Include capitalized letters
- Include lowercase letters
- Include numbers
- Include symbols
- Avoid personal identifiable information (e.g. birthday or name)
- Not be words found in a dictionary
- Multi-factor authentication provides more than one layer of security, using a minimum of two steps to access a virtual space.
- Examples of multi-factor authentication include:
- Choosing and identifying a security image
- reCAPTCHA identification
- Identifying pictures with a common image in them
- Answering security questions
Disadvantages of Accessible PII
- Negative consequences of accessible PII include:
- Credit card information getting into the wrong hands
- Web browsers tracking search history and preferences
- Location information being collected
- Information being used to stalk or steal identities
Protecting PII
- All systems have flaws, so software is needed to protect against cyber attacks.
- Recommendations for protection software include:
- Kaspersky Anti-Virus
- AVG Anti-Virus
- Norton 360 Deluxe Malware Protection
- ESET Cybersecurity
- Limit permission settings when allowing websites access to personal information.
- Password managers can generate complex, random passwords for online accounts.
Cybersecurity Awareness
- Be aware of where your digital footprint is to keep data secure.
- Cyber attacks include dictionary attacks, brute force attacks, and more.
- Hackers can be categorized as:
- White hat hackers (ethical hackers who test systems and protect against attacks)
- Black hat hackers (criminals who use their skills for personal gain)
- Grey hat hackers (individuals with a combination of white and black hat ethics)
Types of Attacks
- Malware refers to malicious software, including viruses, worms, spyware, and ransomware.
- Viruses are specialized computer programs that replicate and insert their code into a new host.
- Phishing is a type of cyber attack that uses disguised emails to trick recipients into providing personal information.
- Keylogging attacks use software or hardware to track keystrokes and gain access to usernames, passwords, and other information.
Public Network Insecurities
- Public networks are especially dangerous to cybersecurity because data can be easily accessed by hackers.
- Rogue access points can be created by hackers to steal personal information.
Digital Files
- Digital files have benefits, including:
- Time-saving in editing and transferring files
- Better efficiency in record-keeping
- Easier access to files
- However, digital files also have limitations and risks, including:
- Security breaches
- File insecurity
- Losing or corrupting information
File Security
- File security is a feature of the file system that controls access and limits what users can do to files.
- Effects of file insecurity include losing, overriding, or corrupting information.
- Steps to ensure file security include:
- Keeping computers and devices updated
- Using strong passwords
- Using anti-virus software
- Encrypting hard drives and mobile devices
- Restricting access to files
Five Pillars of Cybersecurity
- The five pillars are:
- Confidentiality (ensuring information is not disclosed to the wrong individuals)
- Integrity (ensuring information is not damaged or modified during transmission)
- Availability (ensuring services are accessible to users)
- Non-repudiation (proving the identities of the sender and recipient)
- Authentication (confirming identities before allowing access to cyber services)### Password Entropy
- Formula to calculate password entropy: log2(SL)
- S: Size of the pool of unique possible symbols
- L: Password Length
- Example: 6-character password with 26 possible symbols (all lowercase letters)
- Possible combinations: 26^6 = 308,915,776
- Bits of entropy: log2(26^6) = 28.2
Encryption and Decryption
- Encryption: process of changing plaintext (original message) to ciphertext (encrypted text) for security
- Decryption: process of converting ciphertext back to plaintext using a key
Downfalls of Computing
- Intentional misuse (cybercrime): using computing to commit crimes, e.g. fraud, hacking, identity theft, malware, phishing, cyberstalking
- Unintentional negative side effects: programmer bias, algorithmic bias, privacy infringement, inequitable access to technology and the internet
Cyber Attacks
- Dictionary attacks: using algorithms to try common words and variations for passwords
- Brute force attacks: using software to generate many password guesses based on user information
- Denial of Service (DoS) attacks: overwhelming a network server with traffic to prevent legitimate access
- Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks: using multiple devices to attack a single target
Unintended Consequences
- Programmer bias: unintended consequences due to programmers' own biases and limited testing
- Algorithmic bias: systematic errors in computer systems that create unfair outcomes
- Privacy infringement: collection and use of personal data without consent
- Digital Divide: unequal access to technology and the internet due to infrastructure, geographic barriers, government restrictions, and socioeconomic status
Solutions to the Digital Divide
- Increase affordability of internet access and devices
- Develop more infrastructure for global connectivity
- Create informational resources for low-cost devices and internet access
Programmer Responsibilities
- Code of Ethics: guidelines for programmers to promote accountability and transparency
- Mitigating negative impacts of computing: programmer bias, algorithmic bias, privacy infringement, and digital divide
Legal Issues in Computing
- Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA): protects copyrighted material online and provides safe harbor for web hosts and ISPs
- Intellectual property: creative works or inventions that can be patented, copyrighted, or trademarked
- Plagiarism: taking someone else's work or ideas without proper citation
- Creative Commons: non-profit organization promoting open sharing and collaboration of creative works
- Open Source: materials and software allowing others to build upon and adapt
- Open Access: providing free online access to informational materials and research for the greater good### History of Cryptography
- During World War II, the German army used the Enigma machine to encrypt messages to their generals.
- The Polish Cipher Bureau broke the code, allowing Allied code breakers to decrypt the German messages and predict the German army's movements.
Modern Cryptography
- Cryptography is the science of storing data securely in the digital age.
- Four important categories must be maintained when storing information virtually: confidentiality, authenticity, integrity, and ownership.
- Cryptography uses concepts like encryption and decryption to store data securely.
Encryption Explained
- Encryption is the process of changing a message or information to hide its true meaning.
- Plaintext (original message) is turned into ciphertext (encrypted text) for security.
- An encrypted message requires a key to be decrypted.
- Certificate authorities issue digital certificates that validate the ownership of encryption keys used in secure communications.
Decryption Explained
- Decryption takes the encrypted message and converts it back to the original plaintext.
- The key is needed to decrypt the message.
Encoding and Decoding
- Encoding refers to the algorithm that changes plaintext into ciphertext.
- Decoding algorithms are used to convert ciphertext back into plaintext.
- Encoding and decoding algorithms are consistent and public information.
- Encryption keys are needed to secure the encoded data.
Symmetric Key Encryption
- Symmetric key encryption uses one key for both encryption and decryption.
- Advantages: fast and efficient for secure data storage.
- Disadvantages: trust issues and key security can be a challenge since the key can exist with multiple parties or companies.
Public Key Encryption
- Public key encryption uses different keys for encryption and decryption.
- A public key is used to encrypt a message, and a private key is used to decrypt it.
- Example: Bob sends a message to Alice, encrypting it with her public key, and she decrypts it with her private key.
Why is Encryption Necessary?
- Encryption is necessary to protect sensitive information from unauthorized access.
- Examples: ATM transactions, military communications, and website data storage.
Encryption Methods
- Transposition Encryption: changes the position of letters in a message.
- Substitution Encryption: replaces letters in a message with new letters, characters, or numbers (cipher text).
- Examples of Substitution Encryption: T9 Texting and Caesar Cipher.
Substitution Methods
- T9 Texting: uses numbers associated with letters on a telephone keypad to write words.
- Caesar Cipher: a simple encryption method that shifts letters in the plaintext by a certain number of positions.
- Caesar Cipher uses a shift as its key, and the shift determines the letter substitution.
Caesar Cipher Shift
- The shift in the Caesar Cipher determines the letter substitution.
- Example: if the shift is 3, A is substituted for D, B for E, and so on.
- If the shift is 5, F would correspond to A, G to B, and so on through the alphabet.
Protecting Personally Identifiable Information (PII)
- PII can be collected through devices, websites, and detection hardware and software that track movements and location.
- Safeguarding PII is a key responsibility of citizenship in a digital world.
Authentication Measures
- One-step authentication measures use email and password to secure information.
- Strong passwords should be:
- At least 8-12 characters long
- Include capitalized letters
- Include lowercase letters
- Include numbers
- Include symbols
- Avoid personal identifiable information (e.g. birthday or name)
- Not be words found in a dictionary
- Multi-factor authentication provides more than one layer of security, using a minimum of two steps to access a virtual space.
- Examples of multi-factor authentication include:
- Choosing and identifying a security image
- reCAPTCHA identification
- Identifying pictures with a common image in them
- Answering security questions
Disadvantages of Accessible PII
- Negative consequences of accessible PII include:
- Credit card information getting into the wrong hands
- Web browsers tracking search history and preferences
- Location information being collected
- Information being used to stalk or steal identities
Protecting PII
- All systems have flaws, so software is needed to protect against cyber attacks.
- Recommendations for protection software include:
- Kaspersky Anti-Virus
- AVG Anti-Virus
- Norton 360 Deluxe Malware Protection
- ESET Cybersecurity
- Limit permission settings when allowing websites access to personal information.
- Password managers can generate complex, random passwords for online accounts.
Cybersecurity Awareness
- Be aware of where your digital footprint is to keep data secure.
- Cyber attacks include dictionary attacks, brute force attacks, and more.
- Hackers can be categorized as:
- White hat hackers (ethical hackers who test systems and protect against attacks)
- Black hat hackers (criminals who use their skills for personal gain)
- Grey hat hackers (individuals with a combination of white and black hat ethics)
Types of Attacks
- Malware refers to malicious software, including viruses, worms, spyware, and ransomware.
- Viruses are specialized computer programs that replicate and insert their code into a new host.
- Phishing is a type of cyber attack that uses disguised emails to trick recipients into providing personal information.
- Keylogging attacks use software or hardware to track keystrokes and gain access to usernames, passwords, and other information.
Public Network Insecurities
- Public networks are especially dangerous to cybersecurity because data can be easily accessed by hackers.
- Rogue access points can be created by hackers to steal personal information.
Digital Files
- Digital files have benefits, including:
- Time-saving in editing and transferring files
- Better efficiency in record-keeping
- Easier access to files
- However, digital files also have limitations and risks, including:
- Security breaches
- File insecurity
- Losing or corrupting information
File Security
- File security is a feature of the file system that controls access and limits what users can do to files.
- Effects of file insecurity include losing, overriding, or corrupting information.
- Steps to ensure file security include:
- Keeping computers and devices updated
- Using strong passwords
- Using anti-virus software
- Encrypting hard drives and mobile devices
- Restricting access to files
Five Pillars of Cybersecurity
- The five pillars are:
- Confidentiality (ensuring information is not disclosed to the wrong individuals)
- Integrity (ensuring information is not damaged or modified during transmission)
- Availability (ensuring services are accessible to users)
- Non-repudiation (proving the identities of the sender and recipient)
- Authentication (confirming identities before allowing access to cyber services)### Password Entropy
- Formula to calculate password entropy: log2(SL)
- S: Size of the pool of unique possible symbols
- L: Password Length
- Example: 6-character password with 26 possible symbols (all lowercase letters)
- Possible combinations: 26^6 = 308,915,776
- Bits of entropy: log2(26^6) = 28.2
Encryption and Decryption
- Encryption: process of changing plaintext (original message) to ciphertext (encrypted text) for security
- Decryption: process of converting ciphertext back to plaintext using a key
Downfalls of Computing
- Intentional misuse (cybercrime): using computing to commit crimes, e.g. fraud, hacking, identity theft, malware, phishing, cyberstalking
- Unintentional negative side effects: programmer bias, algorithmic bias, privacy infringement, inequitable access to technology and the internet
Cyber Attacks
- Dictionary attacks: using algorithms to try common words and variations for passwords
- Brute force attacks: using software to generate many password guesses based on user information
- Denial of Service (DoS) attacks: overwhelming a network server with traffic to prevent legitimate access
- Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks: using multiple devices to attack a single target
Unintended Consequences
- Programmer bias: unintended consequences due to programmers' own biases and limited testing
- Algorithmic bias: systematic errors in computer systems that create unfair outcomes
- Privacy infringement: collection and use of personal data without consent
- Digital Divide: unequal access to technology and the internet due to infrastructure, geographic barriers, government restrictions, and socioeconomic status
Solutions to the Digital Divide
- Increase affordability of internet access and devices
- Develop more infrastructure for global connectivity
- Create informational resources for low-cost devices and internet access
Programmer Responsibilities
- Code of Ethics: guidelines for programmers to promote accountability and transparency
- Mitigating negative impacts of computing: programmer bias, algorithmic bias, privacy infringement, and digital divide
Legal Issues in Computing
- Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA): protects copyrighted material online and provides safe harbor for web hosts and ISPs
- Intellectual property: creative works or inventions that can be patented, copyrighted, or trademarked
- Plagiarism: taking someone else's work or ideas without proper citation
- Creative Commons: non-profit organization promoting open sharing and collaboration of creative works
- Open Source: materials and software allowing others to build upon and adapt
- Open Access: providing free online access to informational materials and research for the greater good### History of Cryptography
- During World War II, the German army used the Enigma machine to encrypt messages to their generals.
- The Polish Cipher Bureau broke the code, allowing Allied code breakers to decrypt the German messages and predict the German army's movements.
Modern Cryptography
- Cryptography is the science of storing data securely in the digital age.
- Four important categories must be maintained when storing information virtually: confidentiality, authenticity, integrity, and ownership.
- Cryptography uses concepts like encryption and decryption to store data securely.
Encryption Explained
- Encryption is the process of changing a message or information to hide its true meaning.
- Plaintext (original message) is turned into ciphertext (encrypted text) for security.
- An encrypted message requires a key to be decrypted.
- Certificate authorities issue digital certificates that validate the ownership of encryption keys used in secure communications.
Decryption Explained
- Decryption takes the encrypted message and converts it back to the original plaintext.
- The key is needed to decrypt the message.
Encoding and Decoding
- Encoding refers to the algorithm that changes plaintext into ciphertext.
- Decoding algorithms are used to convert ciphertext back into plaintext.
- Encoding and decoding algorithms are consistent and public information.
- Encryption keys are needed to secure the encoded data.
Symmetric Key Encryption
- Symmetric key encryption uses one key for both encryption and decryption.
- Advantages: fast and efficient for secure data storage.
- Disadvantages: trust issues and key security can be a challenge since the key can exist with multiple parties or companies.
Public Key Encryption
- Public key encryption uses different keys for encryption and decryption.
- A public key is used to encrypt a message, and a private key is used to decrypt it.
- Example: Bob sends a message to Alice, encrypting it with her public key, and she decrypts it with her private key.
Why is Encryption Necessary?
- Encryption is necessary to protect sensitive information from unauthorized access.
- Examples: ATM transactions, military communications, and website data storage.
Encryption Methods
- Transposition Encryption: changes the position of letters in a message.
- Substitution Encryption: replaces letters in a message with new letters, characters, or numbers (cipher text).
- Examples of Substitution Encryption: T9 Texting and Caesar Cipher.
Substitution Methods
- T9 Texting: uses numbers associated with letters on a telephone keypad to write words.
- Caesar Cipher: a simple encryption method that shifts letters in the plaintext by a certain number of positions.
- Caesar Cipher uses a shift as its key, and the shift determines the letter substitution.
Caesar Cipher Shift
- The shift in the Caesar Cipher determines the letter substitution.
- Example: if the shift is 3, A is substituted for D, B for E, and so on.
- If the shift is 5, F would correspond to A, G to B, and so on through the alphabet.
Protecting Personally Identifiable Information (PII)
- PII can be collected through devices, websites, and detection hardware and software that track movements and location.
- Safeguarding PII is a key responsibility of citizenship in a digital world.
Authentication Measures
- One-step authentication measures use email and password to secure information.
- Strong passwords should be:
- At least 8-12 characters long
- Include capitalized letters
- Include lowercase letters
- Include numbers
- Include symbols
- Avoid personal identifiable information (e.g. birthday or name)
- Not be words found in a dictionary
- Multi-factor authentication provides more than one layer of security, using a minimum of two steps to access a virtual space.
- Examples of multi-factor authentication include:
- Choosing and identifying a security image
- reCAPTCHA identification
- Identifying pictures with a common image in them
- Answering security questions
Disadvantages of Accessible PII
- Negative consequences of accessible PII include:
- Credit card information getting into the wrong hands
- Web browsers tracking search history and preferences
- Location information being collected
- Information being used to stalk or steal identities
Protecting PII
- All systems have flaws, so software is needed to protect against cyber attacks.
- Recommendations for protection software include:
- Kaspersky Anti-Virus
- AVG Anti-Virus
- Norton 360 Deluxe Malware Protection
- ESET Cybersecurity
- Limit permission settings when allowing websites access to personal information.
- Password managers can generate complex, random passwords for online accounts.
Cybersecurity Awareness
- Be aware of where your digital footprint is to keep data secure.
- Cyber attacks include dictionary attacks, brute force attacks, and more.
- Hackers can be categorized as:
- White hat hackers (ethical hackers who test systems and protect against attacks)
- Black hat hackers (criminals who use their skills for personal gain)
- Grey hat hackers (individuals with a combination of white and black hat ethics)
Types of Attacks
- Malware refers to malicious software, including viruses, worms, spyware, and ransomware.
- Viruses are specialized computer programs that replicate and insert their code into a new host.
- Phishing is a type of cyber attack that uses disguised emails to trick recipients into providing personal information.
- Keylogging attacks use software or hardware to track keystrokes and gain access to usernames, passwords, and other information.
Public Network Insecurities
- Public networks are especially dangerous to cybersecurity because data can be easily accessed by hackers.
- Rogue access points can be created by hackers to steal personal information.
Digital Files
- Digital files have benefits, including:
- Time-saving in editing and transferring files
- Better efficiency in record-keeping
- Easier access to files
- However, digital files also have limitations and risks, including:
- Security breaches
- File insecurity
- Losing or corrupting information
File Security
- File security is a feature of the file system that controls access and limits what users can do to files.
- Effects of file insecurity include losing, overriding, or corrupting information.
- Steps to ensure file security include:
- Keeping computers and devices updated
- Using strong passwords
- Using anti-virus software
- Encrypting hard drives and mobile devices
- Restricting access to files
Five Pillars of Cybersecurity
- The five pillars are:
- Confidentiality (ensuring information is not disclosed to the wrong individuals)
- Integrity (ensuring information is not damaged or modified during transmission)
- Availability (ensuring services are accessible to users)
- Non-repudiation (proving the identities of the sender and recipient)
- Authentication (confirming identities before allowing access to cyber services)### Password Entropy
- Formula to calculate password entropy: log2(SL)
- S: Size of the pool of unique possible symbols
- L: Password Length
- Example: 6-character password with 26 possible symbols (all lowercase letters)
- Possible combinations: 26^6 = 308,915,776
- Bits of entropy: log2(26^6) = 28.2
Encryption and Decryption
- Encryption: process of changing plaintext (original message) to ciphertext (encrypted text) for security
- Decryption: process of converting ciphertext back to plaintext using a key
Downfalls of Computing
- Intentional misuse (cybercrime): using computing to commit crimes, e.g. fraud, hacking, identity theft, malware, phishing, cyberstalking
- Unintentional negative side effects: programmer bias, algorithmic bias, privacy infringement, inequitable access to technology and the internet
Cyber Attacks
- Dictionary attacks: using algorithms to try common words and variations for passwords
- Brute force attacks: using software to generate many password guesses based on user information
- Denial of Service (DoS) attacks: overwhelming a network server with traffic to prevent legitimate access
- Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks: using multiple devices to attack a single target
Unintended Consequences
- Programmer bias: unintended consequences due to programmers' own biases and limited testing
- Algorithmic bias: systematic errors in computer systems that create unfair outcomes
- Privacy infringement: collection and use of personal data without consent
- Digital Divide: unequal access to technology and the internet due to infrastructure, geographic barriers, government restrictions, and socioeconomic status
Solutions to the Digital Divide
- Increase affordability of internet access and devices
- Develop more infrastructure for global connectivity
- Create informational resources for low-cost devices and internet access
Programmer Responsibilities
- Code of Ethics: guidelines for programmers to promote accountability and transparency
- Mitigating negative impacts of computing: programmer bias, algorithmic bias, privacy infringement, and digital divide
Legal Issues in Computing
- Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA): protects copyrighted material online and provides safe harbor for web hosts and ISPs
- Intellectual property: creative works or inventions that can be patented, copyrighted, or trademarked
- Plagiarism: taking someone else's work or ideas without proper citation
- Creative Commons: non-profit organization promoting open sharing and collaboration of creative works
- Open Source: materials and software allowing others to build upon and adapt
- Open Access: providing free online access to informational materials and research for the greater good### History of Cryptography
- During World War II, the German army used the Enigma machine to encrypt messages to their generals.
- The Polish Cipher Bureau broke the code, allowing Allied code breakers to decrypt the German messages and predict the German army's movements.
Modern Cryptography
- Cryptography is the science of storing data securely in the digital age.
- Four important categories must be maintained when storing information virtually: confidentiality, authenticity, integrity, and ownership.
- Cryptography uses concepts like encryption and decryption to store data securely.
Encryption Explained
- Encryption is the process of changing a message or information to hide its true meaning.
- Plaintext (original message) is turned into ciphertext (encrypted text) for security.
- An encrypted message requires a key to be decrypted.
- Certificate authorities issue digital certificates that validate the ownership of encryption keys used in secure communications.
Decryption Explained
- Decryption takes the encrypted message and converts it back to the original plaintext.
- The key is needed to decrypt the message.
Encoding and Decoding
- Encoding refers to the algorithm that changes plaintext into ciphertext.
- Decoding algorithms are used to convert ciphertext back into plaintext.
- Encoding and decoding algorithms are consistent and public information.
- Encryption keys are needed to secure the encoded data.
Symmetric Key Encryption
- Symmetric key encryption uses one key for both encryption and decryption.
- Advantages: fast and efficient for secure data storage.
- Disadvantages: trust issues and key security can be a challenge since the key can exist with multiple parties or companies.
Public Key Encryption
- Public key encryption uses different keys for encryption and decryption.
- A public key is used to encrypt a message, and a private key is used to decrypt it.
- Example: Bob sends a message to Alice, encrypting it with her public key, and she decrypts it with her private key.
Why is Encryption Necessary?
- Encryption is necessary to protect sensitive information from unauthorized access.
- Examples: ATM transactions, military communications, and website data storage.
Encryption Methods
- Transposition Encryption: changes the position of letters in a message.
- Substitution Encryption: replaces letters in a message with new letters, characters, or numbers (cipher text).
- Examples of Substitution Encryption: T9 Texting and Caesar Cipher.
Substitution Methods
- T9 Texting: uses numbers associated with letters on a telephone keypad to write words.
- Caesar Cipher: a simple encryption method that shifts letters in the plaintext by a certain number of positions.
- Caesar Cipher uses a shift as its key, and the shift determines the letter substitution.
Caesar Cipher Shift
- The shift in the Caesar Cipher determines the letter substitution.
- Example: if the shift is 3, A is substituted for D, B for E, and so on.
- If the shift is 5, F would correspond to A, G to B, and so on through the alphabet.
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Learn how to keep your personal data safe and secure from unwanted collection and tracking. Discover the ways programs and devices can collect your location and personal information.