Propositions, Arguments and Attitudes

Propositions and Arguments

• Proposition: A term with broad use in contemporary philosophy
• Propositions can be primary bearers of truth-value
• Propositions can be objects of belief
• Propositions can refer to 'that-clauses'
• Propositions can be the meanings of sentences
• Primary bearers of truth-value refers to epistemic content of an argument
• Propositions are crucial for determining an argument's validity and soundness

Propositional Attitudes

• A propositional attitude is a mental state or belief towards something
• A proposition is a sentence expressing a thought
• Examples include: Believing, Hoping, Desiring, Predicting, Wishing, Fearing, Loving, Suspecting, and Expecting
• Propositional attitudes are intentional states directed at something

Referents of That-Clauses

• Referents are objects of propositional attitudes followed by truth claims
• For example: "Jane believes that it is raining"

Propositions as Building Blocks

• Propositions serve as the foundation for reasoning.
• A proposition asserts something to be true or false.
• Every proposition is either true or false.
• Statements are not exact synonyms, but can be used very similarly

History of Propositions - Ancient

• The Stoics first employed the concept of proposition in the Western philosophical tradition.
• Zeno and Chrysippus distinguished between material aspects of words (lekta) and what is said.
• Among lekta: Complete and incomplete were distinguished, with complete lekta including axiomata.
• Only axiomata were considered true or false by the Stoics, and were subject matter of Stoic logic

Stoic Materialism and Lekta

• Lekta posed a problem for Stoic materialism
• Stoic Materialism says everything real is corporeal and bodily
• But Lekta were thought to be incorporeal

History of Propositions - Medieval

• Abelard differentiated between dicta (what is said) and acts of assertion.
• Dicta were the fundamental bearers of truth-value, while successors explored the nature or identity conditions of dicta.

History of Propositions - Modern

• Gottlob Frege focused on sense and reference, and Bertrand Russell on denoting.
• Frege stated non-existent beings have no reference but are meaningful.
• Two propositions can have the same reference but different meanings (sense).
• Principle of identity involves reference (a=a) and sense/meaning (a≠a)

Tagalog Language Question

• You are Ilongo, and ignorant of Tagalog language
• Statement: Ang aso tumawid sa kalsada

Arguments

• Arguments create the building blocks of propositions
• Arguments affirm one proposition based on others
• Inference, tying together propositions, is drawn within an argument
• Logicians analyze proposition clusters - including beginnings, ends and relationships

What Constitutes an Argument?

• In logic, an argument is any group of propositions where one is claimed to follow from the others, providing support for its truth
• Arguments needs to involve some element of disagreement
• Arguments are not merely collections of propositions, but structured clusters exhibiting inference with conclusion and premise
• Conclusion: A proposition affirmed based on other propositions in the argument
• Premises: Propositions that provide support for the conclusion

Argument's Simplest Form

• Argument consists of statements, where some (premises) support or give reason to believe another (conclusion)
• Logic is a science that evaluates arguments
• The purpose of logic is to develop methods that distinguish goof arguments from bad
• Propositions/Statements are declarative, with the ability to be either true or false

Truth Values of Statements

• Truth and falsity represents the truth values of the statement
• A proposition consists of premises and exactly one conclusion
• Premises set forth reasons or evidence
• A conclusion provides supported evidence or implies

What is Inference?

• Inference is a conclusion, with its premises, to constitute an argument
• Drawing an inference is arriving at and affirming a proposition using another

Indicators

• Conclusion indicators are words or phrases signaling the appearance of an argument's conclusion
• Partial list: therefore, hence, so, accordingly, in consequence
• Premise indicators are words or phrases that mark the premises of an argument.
• Partial list: since, because, for, as.

Arguments in Context

• Arguments may not always include direct indicator words and phrases
• Meaning of the passage may be sufficient to indicate the the presence of an agument

Sam Harris

• Indicators can be absent when looking at Sam Harris's Letter to a Christian Nation
• Premises and conclusions are unmistakable

Context for Arguments

• Understanding the context is critical to comprehending the full force and meaning of an argument
• Context for real life is very critical

Premises or Conclusions

• Premises can come in the form of questions
• Interrogative sentences can serve as premises when the question is rhetorical to suggest or assume an answer.
• Form of sentences can be interrogative but contain declarative meaning

Rhetorical Questions

• Rhetorical questions are used to make a statement.
• Because they are in interrogative form, rhetorical questions do not assert anything.

Unstated Propositions as Enthymemes

• Arguments can be unclear when a proposition is not stated but assumed, forming what is known as an enthymeme
• Department of Sociology at City College, CUNY presented controversial arguments regarding the death penalty.
• The first premise of each argument: the belief about what deters homicide
• The second premise is not said, which leave the task of reconstruction.

Unstated Second Premise

• Relies on unstated premise: “No one should be executed to advance execution.” Mistakes in deterring murders would make those people responsible.
• Second argument relies on unstated premise for protecting innocent lives and being deterred through fear. The mistake of deterring muderers would make them responsible.
• The unstated second premise is plausible and can be persuasive

Arguments vs. Explanations

• Apparent arguments can be explanations
• Common indicators, such as "because," "for," "since," and "therefore," don't clarify the scenario
• Intention of the author is the only way to clarify whether information is an argument or explanation

Bible Verse Example

• Comparison of two passages helps to differentiate
• Matthew 7:19 is identified as passage #1
• Genesis 11:19 is passage #2
• Mark 7:19 is an argument supported by the premise. Heart reflects the word "for"

Analysis of Genesis 11:19

• The Genesis passage explains the name "Babel."
• Context indicates the writer is trying to explain why the tower in genesis is called Babel
• Second passge isn't a reason for beliving the fact becasue those statements are already known.
• Therefore this context highlights how passages can be different. Context matters

Recognizing non-arguments

• Recognize the difference between Arguments, an agreement, a disagreement, and a position
• This allows the user with an ability to persuade others

Key terms

• Position is a point of view
• Agreement is concurring with another point of view
• Disagreement is holding a different point of view
• Argument supporting a point of view so others may agree

Example statements

• Position- genetic engineering worries me
• Agreement- I agree with your opinion
• Disagreement- that doesnt' convince me, I disagree

Description

• Give an account of how or what something is
• They do not give reasoned accounts of how or why something occured nor do they evaluate outcomes

What should scientific writings consist of?

• In Reports and academic writing should be accurate an factual. Free of value judgments.
• They are not intended to push a point of view. They aim to give the audience a thorough understanding

What is an Exposition

• An Expository passage is a kind of discourse that begins with a topic sentence followed by one or more sentences that develop the topic sentence.
• The objective is not to prove the topic sentence but only to expand or elaborate it, then there is no argument.

Familiar States of Matter

• Matter has three familiar states: solid, liquid, and gas
• Passages lack inferential claims

What is an illustration

• An illustration is an expression with examples show what something means or how its done
• This method is often confused for arguments because of illustrations that contain indicator words such as "thus"

Chemical element Example

• Chemical Elements, as well as compounds, can be represented with molecular structures.

Analysis for illustration

• The selections are not arguments because they dont convey something that needs to be proved
• It shows how something is done
• The examples cited the meaning of "deciduous"

How do illustrations apply?

• illustrations can be taken as proven evidence when something happens, this is called by example example. Although most forms of cancer, if untreated, can cause death, not all cancers are life threatening. For example, basal cell carcinoma, the most common of all skin cancers, can produce disfigurement, but it almost never results in death.

What is a signpost?

• Determine whether a passage is proving something, or merely illustrating, that is the goal in signposting-
• Is the message intending to tell you about an illustration? Is it telling the user about something? If its obvious or agreed upon, its not an argument

What is one of the most important non arguments?

• Explanations are one of the most important nonarguments.
• Explanations express purports to shed light on an event
• Event has to be accepted

Blue Sky Example

• "The sky appears blue from the earth's surface because light rays from the sun are scattered by particles in the atmosphere."

Why are explanations mistaken?

• explanations can be mistaken for arguments because they contain the indicator word "because."
• the purpose for the explanation is to point out something or make sense of it.

What are summaries?

• Summaries are reduced versions of longer messages or texts.
• Repeat the key points as a reminder. Highlight most important aspects.
• Conclusions may include a summary, but new material is not introduced

An example of an argument

• A cake needs to be baked and all the ingredients need to be mixed well.
• Therefore to make the cake, simply do these things

Why can't that example constitute an argument?

• This is a set of instructions making a cake
• Final sentence summarizes
• The word therefore is meant to illustrate the final summary

Conditionals are Statements

• Conditional statements are 'if...... then........'
• They do not present evidence, therefore lack to meet criteria earlier.
• Conditional statements asserts true relationships between statements. Yet this is not an argument

Argument types

• Deductive arguments implies conclusion cant' be false with true premises
• Deductive arguments infer conclusion cant be false
• Inductive arguments implies conclusion is improbable, with true premises

Example about an argument

• An arguement that infers probable success is the meerkat is closely related to the surcrat. The suricat thrives on beetle larvae, this implies the meerkat does aswell

What are features that make up that type of argument?

• The arguments style, strength of inferential link, special indicator words, objective features

The need to acknowledge and determine the accurate argument

• we must acknowledge that many arguments in ordinary language are incomplete, and because of this, deciding whether the argument should best be interpreted as deductive or inducive may be impossible

How can the occurance of special words affect an argument?

• This is illustrated throught the words we just examined.
• The word "probably" infers as deductive. Other inductives include improable, plausible, implausible, etc.
• The phrase "it must be the case" can be used with both

What is another affect on the conclusion?

• The strength of the link between two components can affect an interpretation of an argument.
• if the conclusion follows from the premises it is a deductive
• if the conclusion probably goes that way then is a deductive

What happens if all entertainers are extroverted?

• There formost, should be interputed as there's a possibility Stephen is not an extroverted.

What the style of forms in argumentation

• style of forms can be styled by how they are structured in deductive and inductive ways

Deductive forms

• These are arguments based on matchmetics, there is a conclusion about the amount of something on either arithemtic or measurements

Another deductive form

• "Another form is someone that says something that has ties with proxlixity: because of the definition and word.

Does the argument need all two premises?

• arguments can be defined in the first place, some premises don't have certain qualities. This has a impact

Is having 3 premises the max, to make an argument valid?

• No, arguments need more or one or more premises for supporting a conclusion.

What needs to be contained in a sound argument?

• It will have its meaning, true values that make a great deductive argument overall.

What is important for the statements to follow?

• One statement is needed to actually support the conclusion overall, thats why its needed

Can the logic be a double edge sword?

• Because, its based off the mind , if its confusing then the situation might cause a different perspective.

Define what sound vs cogent arguments are

• Sound arguments need to have two accurate requirements, soundness which will be correct, overall.
• cogent, with great skill its a great, impressive overall aspect, that people aim to qualify

What's the key detail before determining if its a cogent decision

• before a decision is made one most assess all requirements to confirm its accurate before giving there insight.

Do inductive statements contain what philosphers call the uniformity of nature?

• Yes they do contain this statement, what the uniform nature means what, will be similar.

Example when sugar is tested in diffrent spaces

• Sugar is uniform, its going to taste the same wheather or not its close, or far.

Testing the regularity's

• Procedure: testing all stength so they remain true
• using what's at hand, determine some aspects on causal patterns
• Generalization: using the information in premises

With all the evidence at hand, should each point be true?

• All point should be clear and true
• As the arguments moves foreward, its best these points go together to complete the equation

What does a cogent and uncogent argument mean?

• A cogent argument means its strong, and possesses all true values
• All premises must be true
• Uncogent is inductive argument that is weak

How the key arguments connect, after?

• Note: a cogent argument and sound are equal
• Each factor is taken to be taken with account