Properties of Electric Field and Potential

Internal Reflection

• Total Internal Reflection (TIR) occurs when light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium at an angle greater than the critical angle.
• The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, and the light is completely reflected back into the denser medium.

Semiconductor

• In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons and holes are equal, and the material is electrically neutral.
• In a p-type semiconductor, the majority charge carriers are holes, and in an n-type semiconductor, the majority charge carriers are electrons.
• The Fermi level is the energy level at which the probability of finding an electron is 50%.
• The electron mobility is the ability of electrons to move freely within a material.

Ohm's Law

• Ohm's Law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage applied across it, and inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor.
• The law is applicable only for physical conditions and not for non-ohmic devices.
• The law is not applicable at very low and high temperatures.

Mobility of Electrons

• The mobility of electrons is the ability of electrons to move freely within a material.
• The mobility of electrons is affected by the applied voltage and the temperature of the material.

Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter

• A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series with the galvanometer.
• The voltmeter measures the voltage across a circuit.

Conversion of Galvanometer to Ammeter

• A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance in parallel with the galvanometer.
• The ammeter measures the current flowing through a circuit.

Magnetic Field and Magnetic Materials

• Magnetic materials are classified into three categories: ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, and diamagnetic.
• Ferromagnetic materials have a strong magnetic field, while paramagnetic materials have a weak magnetic field.
• Diamagnetic materials have a weak and opposite magnetic field.

Bohr's Postulates

• Bohr's postulates state that an electron revolves around the nucleus in a specific orbit, and the energy of the electron is quantized.
• The electron jumps from a higher energy level to a lower energy level by emitting a photon, and the energy of the photon is equal to the energy difference between the two levels.

Electric Dipole

• An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance.
• The electric field of an electric dipole is proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Wheatstone's Bridge

• Wheatstone's Bridge is a circuit used to measure the unknown resistance of a material.
• The bridge consists of four resistances, and the unknown resistance is connected between two known resistances.

Photoelectric Effect

• The photoelectric effect is the phenomenon where light is incident on a metal surface, and electrons are emitted from the surface.
• The energy of the emitted electrons is dependent on the frequency of the incident light, and not on the intensity of the light.

Einstein's Photoelectric Equation

• Einstein's photoelectric equation states that the energy of the emitted electrons is equal to the energy of the incident light minus the work function of the material.

Electric Field and Electric Potential

• The electric field at a point is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive charge placed at that point.
• The electric potential at a point is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.

Capacitance

• Capacitance is the ability of a material to store electric charge.
• The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is dependent on the area of the plates, the distance between the plates, and the dielectric material between the plates.

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

• The energy stored in a capacitor is proportional to the capacitance of the capacitor and the square of the voltage applied across it.

Ampere's Circuital Law

• Ampere's Circuital Law states that the line integral of the magnetic field around a closed loop is equal to the total current flowing through the loop.

Electromagnetic Induction

• Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon where a changing magnetic field induces an electric field.
• The induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux and the number of turns in the coil.

Transformer

• A transformer is a device that transfers energy from one circuit to another through electromagnetic induction.
• The principle of operation of a transformer is based on mutual induction between two coils.