Prokaryotic Organisms and Cell Division

Definition: Single-celled microorganisms lacking a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
Characteristics:
- Small size (0.5-5.0 μm)
- Simple cell structure
- Rapid growth and reproduction
- Can thrive in various environments
Examples: Bacteria (e.g., E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus), Archaea (e.g., methanogens, thermophiles)

Definition: Process by which a cell divides into two daughter cells
Types:
- Binary fission: Prokaryotic cells divide by simply splitting into two identical cells
- Mitosis: Eukaryotic cells divide into two daughter cells with identical genetic material
- Meiosis: Specialized cell division in eukaryotes that produces gametes (sperm or egg cells)
Stages of cell division:
- Interphase: Cell growth and preparation for division
- Prophase: Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes
- Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell center
- Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate
- Telophase: Nuclear envelope reforms
- Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm divides

Definition: Process by which cells generate energy from nutrients
Types:
- Cellular respiration: Process by which cells generate energy from glucose (and other organic molecules)
- Fermentation: Anaerobic process that generates energy from glucose (e.g., yeast fermentation)
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): Energy currency of cells, generated through cellular respiration and fermentation

Definition: Microorganisms with a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
Characteristics:
- Larger size (5-100 μm) compared to prokaryotes
- Complex cell structure with organelles
- Slower growth and reproduction compared to prokaryotes
Examples: Protists (e.g., protozoa, algae), fungi (e.g., yeast, mushrooms), plants, animals

Definition: Process by which cells convert light energy into chemical energy
Types:
- Oxygenic photosynthesis: Generates oxygen as a byproduct (e.g., plants, algae, cyanobacteria)
- Anoxygenic photosynthesis: Does not generate oxygen as a byproduct (e.g., purple sulfur bacteria)
Light-dependent reactions: Light energy is absorbed and converted into ATP and NADPH
Light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle): ATP and NADPH are used to convert CO2 into glucose

Definition: Process by which cells generate energy from glucose (and other organic molecules)
Stages:
- Glycolysis: Glucose is broken down into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH
- Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle): Pyruvate is converted into ATP, NADH, and FADH2
- Electron transport chain: ATP is generated through the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2
- Oxidative phosphorylation: ATP is generated through the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2

Single-celled microorganisms lacking a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
Characterized by small size (0.5-5.0 μm), simple cell structure, rapid growth, and reproduction
Can thrive in various environments
Examples include bacteria like E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus, and archaea like methanogens and thermophiles

Process by which a cell divides into two daughter cells
Types of cell division include binary fission, mitosis, and meiosis
Binary fission involves prokaryotic cells dividing into two identical cells
Mitosis results in two daughter cells with identical genetic material in eukaryotes
Meiosis produces gametes (sperm or egg cells) in eukaryotes

Process by which cells generate energy from nutrients
Types of energy production include cellular respiration and fermentation
Cellular respiration generates energy from glucose (and other organic molecules)
Fermentation generates energy from glucose in anaerobic conditions
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the energy currency of cells, generated through cellular respiration and fermentation

Process by which cells convert light energy into chemical energy
Types of photosynthesis include oxygenic and anoxygenic photosynthesis
Oxygenic photosynthesis generates oxygen as a byproduct
Anoxygenic photosynthesis does not generate oxygen as a byproduct
Light-dependent reactions absorb light energy and convert it into ATP and NADPH
Light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle) convert CO2 into glucose using ATP and NADPH

Process by which cells generate energy from glucose (and other organic molecules)
Stages of cellular respiration include glycolysis, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain, and oxidative phosphorylation
Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH
Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) converts pyruvate into ATP, NADH, and FADH2
Electron transport chain generates ATP through the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2
Oxidative phosphorylation generates ATP through the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2