Programming Languages and Computer Architecture

Definition: Formal languages comprising a set of instructions for computers.
Types:
- Low-level Languages: Close to machine code (e.g., Assembly).
- High-level Languages: More abstract, easier for humans to understand (e.g., Python, Java, C++).
Compiled vs. Interpreted:
- Compiled: Translated into machine code before execution (e.g., C, C++).
- Interpreted: Executed line-by-line at runtime (e.g., Python, JavaScript).
Paradigms:
- Procedural: Based on procedures or routines (e.g., C).
- Object-oriented: Organized around objects and classes (e.g., Java, C++).
- Functional: Treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions (e.g., Haskell, Lisp).

Definition: Design and organization of computer systems' components.
Key Components:
- CPU (Central Processing Unit): The brain of the computer, performs calculations and tasks.
- Memory: Temporary storage for data and instructions (RAM).
- Storage: Permanent data storage (HDD, SSD).
- I/O Devices: Input (keyboard, mouse) and output (monitor, printer) devices.
Architectural Models:
- Von Neumann Architecture: Single shared memory for data and instructions.
- Harvard Architecture: Separate memory for instructions and data.

Definition: The application of engineering principles to software development.
Key Concepts:
- Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC): Phases include planning, analysis, design, implementation, testing, and maintenance.
- Agile Methodology: Iterative development with flexibility and customer collaboration.
- Version Control: Systems for tracking changes in software (e.g., Git).
- Testing: Quality assurance through unit tests, integration tests, and system tests.

Definition: The practice of interconnecting computers to share resources.
Types of Networks:
- LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small geographic area, like a home or office.
- WAN (Wide Area Network): Spans large geographic areas, interconnecting multiple LANs.
Protocols:
- TCP/IP: Basic communication protocols on the Internet.
- HTTP/HTTPS: Protocols for web traffic.
- FTP: File Transfer Protocol for transferring files.
Network Devices:
- Router: Connects different networks and directs data packets.
- Switch: Connects devices within the same network, forwarding data based on MAC addresses.

Definition: Simulation of human intelligence in machines.
Subfields:
- Machine Learning: Algorithms that improve through experience (e.g., supervised, unsupervised, reinforcement learning).
- Natural Language Processing (NLP): Enables machines to understand and process human language (e.g., chatbots).
- Computer Vision: Enables machines to interpret and process visual information (e.g., image recognition).
Applications:
- Autonomous Vehicles: Self-driving technology using AI to navigate.
- Healthcare: AI for diagnostics, personalized medicine, and predictive analytics.
- Finance: Fraud detection, algorithmic trading, and risk assessment.

Formal languages consisting of instructions for computers.
Low-level Languages: Close to machine code, examples include Assembly language.
High-level Languages: More abstract and user-friendly, notable examples are Python, Java, and C++.
Compiled Languages: Translated to machine code prior to execution, examples include C and C++.
Interpreted Languages: Executed line-by-line at runtime, examples include Python and JavaScript.
Procedural Paradigm: Based on procedures or routines, with C as a prominent example.
Object-oriented Paradigm: Organized around objects and classes, commonly seen in Java and C++.
Functional Paradigm: Focuses on mathematical functions for computation, with Haskell and Lisp as examples.

Design and organization of a computer system's components.
CPU (Central Processing Unit): The primary component that performs calculations and executes tasks.
Memory: Temporary storage area for data and instructions, typically referred to as RAM.
Storage: Provides permanent data storage solutions, including HDDs and SSDs.
I/O Devices: Facilitate input (keyboard, mouse) and output (monitor, printer) operations.
Von Neumann Architecture: Features shared memory for both data and instructions.
Harvard Architecture: Utilizes separate memory for instructions and data, allowing parallel access.

Application of engineering principles in the development of software.
Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC): Encompasses planning, analysis, design, implementation, testing, and maintenance phases.
Agile Methodology: Advocates for iterative development, promoting flexibility and deep customer collaboration.
Version Control Systems: Tools like Git track changes in software and manage collaborative changes.
Testing: Essential for quality assurance, includes unit tests, integration tests, and system tests to ensure software reliability.

Interconnecting computers to share resources and information.
LAN (Local Area Network): Serves a small geographic area, such as within a home or office setting.
WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers larger geographic distances, connecting multiple LANs.
TCP/IP: Fundamental protocols that underpin Internet communication.
HTTP/HTTPS: Protocols specific to web traffic, with HTTPS providing a secure version.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for the transferring of files across networks.
Router: Connects different networks, directing data packets efficiently.
Switch: Facilitates connectivity within the same network, forwarding data based on MAC addresses.

Simulation of human intelligence within machines.
Machine Learning: Involves algorithms that adapt and improve through experience, categorized into supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning.
Natural Language Processing (NLP): Enables machines to understand and interact with human language, exemplified by chatbots.
Computer Vision: Focuses on allowing machines to interpret and analyze visual information, used in applications like image recognition.
Applications:
- Autonomous Vehicles: AI enables self-driving technology for navigation and decision-making.
- Healthcare: AI aids in diagnostics, personal medicine approaches, and predictive analytics for patient care.
- Finance: Improves fraud detection, enables algorithm-based trading, and assists in risk assessment processes.