Problem Solving Strategies and Thinking

Learning Goals

• Different strategies for problem solving
• How creativity and analogies aid problem solving
• Classification of problems

Forms of Thinking

• Problem solving is a cognitive process moving from problem recognition to solution via steps.
• Problem solving differs from decision-making, requiring unique solutions rather than selecting existing options.
• Deductive reasoning logically entails conclusions based on provided facts.
• Informal reasoning evaluates argument strength using experience and knowledge.
• Inductive reasoning determines truth or hypothesis based on available info (not guaranteed).

Introduction

• Problem solving involves recognizing a gap between two states,
• A problem exists when existing knowledge doesn't lead to immediate solutions.
• Well-defined problems involve known initial states, goal states and valid moves.
• Ill-defined problems have unclear initial states, goal states, or valid moves.
• Knowledge-rich problems require specific expertise, while knowledge-lean problems can be solved using readily available information.

Gestalt Approach and Role of Experience

• Reproductive thinking uses established experiences for well-defined problems
• Productive thinking involves novel problem restructuring for ill-defined problems.
• Insight involves a sudden comprehension of solution, restructuring mental representations.
• Aha! experience is associated with non-conscious knowledge accumulation.
• Insights can sometimes be mistaken solutions, especially when quick.
• Insight problems involve specific brain areas, such as the anterior temporal gyrus and anterior cingulate cortex.
• Emotion plays a role in insightful problem-solving, indicated by autonomic arousal.
• Representational change theory describes initial problem representation, unconscious search for relevant strategies, and an impasse/blocked state overcome through different strategies.

Facilitating Insight

• Incubation, a temporary break from problem solving, sometimes aids resolution.
• Mental set refers to the tendency to use familiar strategies, even when less effective for the current problem.
• Functional fixedness limits the perceived functions of objects.
• Specific techniques exist to overcome functional fixedness and enhance creativity in problem-solving.

Cognitive Control

• Cognitive control, the ability to focus on relevant information, influences how efficiently individuals solve problems.
• Narrowed focus can hinder problem-solving, particularly in tasks requiring broader awareness.
• Cognitive control can interfere with insightful solutions in specific instances.
• Working memory capacity affects problem-solving abilities.

Problem Solving Strategies

• Problem space is a method for mapping possible problem states.
• Heuristics are simple, cognitive rules used to make approximations, unlike algorithms which use specific procedures.
• Hill climbing is a heuristic focusing on short-term steps towards a goal.
• Means-end analysis, a heuristic, identifies sub-goals to bridge differences.
• Meta-reasoning involves evaluating progress, modifying strategies, or switching to other approaches when necessary.

Planning

• Individuals planning complex problems typically use prefrontal areas initially.
• Distinguishing between plan production (creating a plan) and plan execution (implementing a plan).
• Problem solvers often use short-term solutions due to memory constraints.
• Adjustments during task execution are possible, which demonstrates flexibility in planning.

Analogical Problem Solving

• Analogical problem solving involves identifying similarities between current and past problems for efficient problem-solving.
• Superficial, structural, and procedural similarities can aid problem-solving.
• Individual skills in applying analogies, particularly those with higher fluid intelligence, lead to greater success.
• Analogical problem-solving enhances creativity by utilizing past experiences.

Expertise

• Expertise represents high levels of knowledge and performance in a specific area.
• Chess players exhibit specialized cognitive skills like pattern recognition.
• Expert chess players demonstrate superior memory encoding and retrieval of knowledge.
• Template theory describes abstract schematic representation templates used by experts, which are built on general chunks of knowledge.