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Questions and Answers
Questions and Answers
Which three countries developed the earliest form of print technology?
Which three countries developed the earliest form of print technology?
- Germany, France, and England
- India, Persia, and Egypt
- China, Japan, and Korea (correct)
- Greece, Rome, and Italy
From what year onwards were books in China printed by rubbing paper?
From what year onwards were books in China printed by rubbing paper?
- 450 AD
- 510 AD
- 682 AD
- 594 AD (correct)
How was the traditional Chinese 'accordion book' constructed?
How was the traditional Chinese 'accordion book' constructed?
- Folded and stitched at both sides (correct)
- Rolled into a scroll
- Glued along the top edge
- Bound with metal rings
What was China's role in the production of printed material for a very long time?
What was China's role in the production of printed material for a very long time?
What was the purpose of printing a large number of textbooks in China?
What was the purpose of printing a large number of textbooks in China?
By the seventeenth century, who else started using print besides scholar-officials in China?
By the seventeenth century, who else started using print besides scholar-officials in China?
What kind of literature did new readers prefer as reading became a leisure activity?
What kind of literature did new readers prefer as reading became a leisure activity?
Which city became the center of the new print culture in China?
Which city became the center of the new print culture in China?
When was hand-printing technology introduced to Japan from China?
When was hand-printing technology introduced to Japan from China?
What is the name of the oldest Japanese book, printed in AD 868?
What is the name of the oldest Japanese book, printed in AD 868?
What did the Buddhist Diamond Sutra contain?
What did the Buddhist Diamond Sutra contain?
In medieval Japan, why were books by poets and prose writers cheap?
In medieval Japan, why were books by poets and prose writers cheap?
What types of institutions in Edo (Tokyo) contained hand-printed books on various subjects?
What types of institutions in Edo (Tokyo) contained hand-printed books on various subjects?
How did Chinese paper reach Europe in the eleventh century?
How did Chinese paper reach Europe in the eleventh century?
Who brought the knowledge of woodblock printing to Italy from China?
Who brought the knowledge of woodblock printing to Italy from China?
What material was used for luxury editions of handwritten books for aristocrats?
What material was used for luxury editions of handwritten books for aristocrats?
What was the main reason handwritten manuscripts could not satisfy the increasing demand for books?
What was the main reason handwritten manuscripts could not satisfy the increasing demand for books?
In which decade did Johann Gutenberg develop the first-known printing press?
In which decade did Johann Gutenberg develop the first-known printing press?
What was the first book Johann Gutenberg printed using his perfected system by 1448?
What was the first book Johann Gutenberg printed using his perfected system by 1448?
How many copies of the Bible were printed by Gutenberg in three years?
How many copies of the Bible were printed by Gutenberg in three years?
Questions and Answers
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Flashcards
Flashcards
Early Print Technology
Early Print Technology
The earliest form of print technology, a system of hand printing, was developed in China, Japan, and Korea. In China, books were printed by rubbing paper from 594 AD onwards.
Traditional Chinese Book
Traditional Chinese Book
The traditional Chinese 'accordion book' was folded and stitched at both sides.
China's Role in Print
China's Role in Print
For a very long time, China was the major producer of printed material.
Print for Bureaucrats
Print for Bureaucrats
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Expansion of Print Use
Expansion of Print Use
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Shanghai's Print Culture
Shanghai's Print Culture
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Print in Japan's Introduction
Print in Japan's Introduction
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Oldest Japanese Book
Oldest Japanese Book
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Medieval Japanese Books
Medieval Japanese Books
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Print in Edo (Tokyo)
Print in Edo (Tokyo)
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European Print Introduction
European Print Introduction
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Luxury Editions in Europe
Luxury Editions in Europe
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Scribers and Booksellers
Scribers and Booksellers
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Limitations of Manuscripts
Limitations of Manuscripts
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Gutenberg's Printing Press
Gutenberg's Printing Press
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Early Printed Books Appearance
Early Printed Books Appearance
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The Print Revolution
The Print Revolution
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New Reading Public
New Reading Public
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Oral and Reading Cultures
Oral and Reading Cultures
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Luther and Print
Luther and Print
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Flashcards
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Study Notes
Study Notes
The First Printed Books
- China, Japan, and Korea pioneered print technology using hand printing, with books in China printed by rubbing paper from 594 AD.
- Traditional Chinese "accordion books" were folded and stitched on both sides.
- China was the primary producer of printed materials for an extended period.
- Textbooks for civil service examinations were printed in large numbers under state sponsorship in China, increasing print volume as candidate numbers rose.
- By the 17th century in China, print expanded beyond scholar-officials to merchants for trade information.
- Reading became a recreational activity, with new readers enjoying fictional narratives, poetry, autobiographies, literary anthologies, and romantic plays.
- Affluent women started reading, and many published their own poetry and plays, including works by scholar-officials' wives and courtesans.
- Shanghai emerged as a center for the new print culture, transitioning from hand-printing to mechanical printing.
Print in Japan
- Buddhist missionaries introduced hand-printing technology from China to Japan around AD 768-770.
- The Buddhist Diamond Sutra, printed in AD 868, is the oldest Japanese book, featuring six sheets of text and woodcut illustrations.
- In medieval Japan, poets and prose writers regularly published inexpensive books.
- Late 18th-century Edo (Tokyo) saw illustrative painting collections depicting urban culture, artists, courtesans, and teahouse gatherings.
- Libraries and bookstores stocked hand-printed books on various topics like women, musical instruments, calculations, tea ceremony, flower arrangements, etiquette, cooking, and famous places.
Print Comes to Europe
- Chinese paper spread to Europe via the silk route in the 11th century.
- Marco Polo introduced woodblock printing knowledge from China to Italy, which then disseminated across Europe.
- Aristocrats favored luxurious, handwritten editions on expensive vellum (animal skin).
- Growing demand for books led booksellers to export them, organize book fairs, and develop new methods for handwritten manuscript production.
- Scribes, initially employed by wealthy patrons, found increasing employment with booksellers.
- Handwritten manuscript production could not keep pace with the rising demand for books due to its expense, time-consumption, fragility, and difficulty in handling.
- Europe began extensive use of woodblocks for printing textiles, playing cards, and religious images with simple, brief texts.
- Johann Gutenberg developed the first known printing press in Germany in the 1430s.
Gutenberg and the Printing Press
- Gutenberg, a merchant's son, was skilled in polishing stones and applied existing technology to his printing press innovation.
- By 1448, Gutenberg perfected his system and printed his first book, the Bible, producing 180 copies in three years.
- The new printing technology did not entirely replace hand-produced books; printed books mimicked handwritten manuscripts, with metal letters imitating ornamental handwritten styles.
- Books for the wealthy included blank spaces for later decoration.
- Between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were established across most European countries, marking a shift from hand-printing to mechanical printing and initiating the print revolution.
The Print Revolution and Its Impact
- The print revolution transformed lives by altering relationships with information, knowledge, institutions, and authorities, beyond just being a new way to produce books.
- It influenced public perceptions and introduced new perspectives.
A New Reading Public
- The print revolution lowered book costs, leading to a new reading public and a growing readership as markets became saturated with books.
- This fostered a new reading culture; previously, reading was largely limited to elites.
- Common people traditionally acquired knowledge orally through sacred texts, ballads, and folk tales.
- Before the print revolution, books were expensive.
- Despite low literacy rates in Europe until the 20th century, books were often read aloud, prompting printers to publish illustrated popular ballads and folk tales.
- Oral culture merged with print, blurring the lines between the hearing and reading publics.
Religious Debates and the Fear of Print
- Print opened new avenues for debate and discussion, allowing dissenters to publish and share their ideas.
- Not everyone welcomed printed books; many feared the potential spread of rebellious and irreligious thoughts due to widespread book circulation without control.
- In 1517, religious reformer Martin Luther wrote his Ninety-Five Theses, critiquing Roman Catholic Church practices and rituals, challenging its authority, and sparking debate.
- This contributed to the division within the Church and the start of the "Protestant Reformation."
- Luther considered printing "the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one."
Print and Dissent
- Print and popular religious literature encouraged diverse individual interpretations of faith among educated and less educated working people.
- In the 16th century, Menocchio, a reader of local books, reinterpreted the Bible and developed a view of God and Creation that angered the Roman Catholic Church, leading to his execution after two trials.
The Reading Mania
- Due to widespread reading and questioning of faith, the Roman Church imposed strict control over publishers and booksellers, establishing an Index of Prohibited Books in 1558.
- The 17th and 18th centuries saw increased literacy rates across most of Europe, reaching 60% to 80% in some areas by the late 18th century.
- Churches of various denominations established village schools for peasants and artisans, contributing to rising literacy.
- Increased demand led printers to produce abundant books, and booksellers employed pedlars to sell small volumes in villages.
- Beyond almanacs, ballads, and folktales, new entertainment-focused reading materials became accessible to ordinary readers.
- In England, "chapmen" (petty pedlars) sold inexpensive "penny chapbooks," making them affordable for the poor.
- Books were available in various sizes to suit different reader interests.
- The periodical press emerged in the early 18th century, combining current affairs with entertainment.
- Newspapers and journals reported on wars, trade, and global developments.
- Isaac Newton's scientific discoveries gained wider readership among scientifically inclined individuals through print.
- Writings of influential thinkers like Thomas Paine, Voltaire, and Jean Jacques Rousseau were widely published and read.
- The ideas of science, reason, and rationality propagated by these thinkers permeated popular literature.
'Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world!'
- By the mid-18th century, books were seen as tools for spreading progress and enlightenment, capable of transforming the world and liberating society from despotic rule.
- Louis-Sébastien Mercier, an 18th-century French novelist, declared the printing press "the most powerful engine of progress" and public opinion "the force that will sweep despotism away," believing print brought enlightenment and undermined despotism.
Print Culture and the French Revolution
- Historians argue that print culture contributed to the conditions for the French Revolution through three main arguments.
- Firstly, the print revolution popularized Enlightenment thinkers' ideas, which criticized tradition, superstition, and despotism, advocating judgment based on reason and rationality. Voltaire's and Rousseau's writings were widely read, fostering a critical and rational worldview.
- Secondly, print fostered a new culture of dialogue and debate, promoting the questioning of existing ideas, beliefs, values, norms, and institutions, and giving rise to new social revolution ideas.
- Thirdly, by the 1780s, a surge of literature mocking royalty and criticizing their morality fueled hostile sentiments against the monarchy.
- Print did not directly dictate people's minds but enabled new ways of thinking.
The Nineteenth Century
- The 19th century in Europe saw a significant increase in new readers, including children, women, and workers.
Children, Women and Workers
- Primary education became compulsory from the late 19th century, making children a key demographic for readers.
- In 1857, France established a children's press dedicated solely to children's literature.
- In Germany, the Grimm Brothers collected traditional folk tales from peasants, transforming them into a new literary form.
- Women became important as both readers and writers.
- Penny dreadfuls and manuals on good behavior and housekeeping were specifically aimed at women.
- Notable women novelists like Jane Austen, the Brontë sisters, and George Eliot depicted a "new woman" with willpower, character, determination, and the capacity to think.
- In 19th-century England, lending libraries became crucial for educating white-collar workers, artisans, and lower-middle-class individuals.
- Shortened working hours from the mid-19th century allowed workers time for self-improvement and self-expression, leading to numerous political tracts and autobiographies.
Further Innovations
- The printing press shifted to metal construction by the late 18th century, with further technological innovations in the 19th century.
- By the mid-19th century, Richard M. Hoe of New York developed the power-driven cylindrical press, useful for newspaper printing.
- The offset press, developed in the late 19th century, could print six colors simultaneously.
- Electrically operated presses accelerated printing, improving paper feeding, plate quality, and introducing automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls for color registration.
- Numerous individual mechanical enhancements improved the appearance of printed texts.
India and the World of Print
- India possessed a rich collection of traditional handwritten manuscripts in languages such as Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, and various vernaculars.
Manuscripts Before the Age of Print
- Handwritten manuscripts were predominantly copied on palm leaves or handmade paper.
- Manuscript creation persisted even after the advent of printing.
- Manuscripts were expensive, fragile, and required careful handling.
- In pre-colonial Bengal, many students learned to write without reading extensive texts.
Print Comes to India
- The first printing press arrived in Goa with Portuguese missionaries in the mid-16th century.
- Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in Cochin in 1579 and the first Malayalam book in 1713.
- The English language press developed later in India, despite the East India Company importing presses in the late 17th century.
- James Augustus Hickey edited the weekly Bengal Gazette in 1780, which published advertisements for slave imports and sales, alongside gossip about Company officials.
- By the late 18th century, many newspapers and journals were being printed in India.
- Indians began publishing their own newspapers, with Gangadhar Bhattacharya launching a weekly Bengal Gazette, closely associated with Rammohun Roy.
Religious Reform and Public Debates
- Religious issues intensified into debates in the early 19th century.
- People began critiquing existing practices and advocating for reform, while others countered these arguments.
- New ideas emerged, and intense controversies arose between social/religious reformers and Hindu orthodoxy over issues like widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmanical priesthood, and idolatry.
- In 1821, Rammohun Roy published the Sambad Kaumudi.
- In 1822, two Persian newspapers, Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar, were published, along with a Gujarati newspaper, the Bombay Samachar.
- The Deoband Seminary, founded in 1867, published thousands of fatwas guiding Muslim readers on daily conduct and Islamic doctrines.
- Print fostered the reading of religious texts among Hindus, particularly in vernacular languages.
- The first printed edition of Tulsidas's Ramcharitmanas was released from Calcutta in 1810.
- From the 1880s, the Naval Kishore Press in Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar Press in Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars.
- Religious texts reached a broad audience, stimulating discussions, debates, and controversies within and across different religions.
- Newspapers facilitated news dissemination, fostering pan-Indian identities.
New Forms of Publication
- The invention of printing spurred demand for new types of writing, as more people gained literacy and sought literature reflecting their lives, emotions, and relationships.
- In Europe, the novel emerged as a literary form, later adapting distinctively Indian forms and styles.
- New literary forms like lyrics, short stories, and essays on social and political matters entered the reading world.
- A new visual culture developed by the late 19th century.
- Painters like Raja Ravi Varma produced images for mass circulation.
- Inexpensive prints and calendars became widely available in bazaars, allowing even the poor to decorate their homes or workplaces.
- These prints influenced popular ideas about modernity, tradition, religion, politics, society, and culture.
- During the 1870s, journals and newspapers published caricatures and cartoons commenting on social and political issues, some ridiculing Western tastes and clothes, others expressing fear.
Women and Print
- Women's reading increased substantially in middle-class households; liberal husbands and fathers educated their womenfolk at home and sent them to newly established women's schools in cities.
- Journals began featuring women's writings and advocating for women's education.
- Conservative Hindus feared literate girls would be widowed, and Muslims worried that educated women would be corrupted by Urdu romances.
- Social reforms and novels stimulated significant interest in women's lives and emotions.
- In the early 20th century, journals written and edited by women became extremely popular.
- Women writers such as Kailashbashini Debi, Tarabai Shinde, and Pandita Ramabai greatly influenced other women.
- Rashsundari Debi secretly learned to read in her kitchen and wrote her autobiography, Amar Jiban.
Print and the Poor People
- In Bengal, the Battala area of central Calcutta was dedicated to printing popular books.
- By the late 19th century, many Battala books were extensively illustrated with woodcuts and colored lithographs.
- Pedlars carried Battala publications to homes, enabling women to read during their leisure.
- In 19th-century Madras towns, cheap small books were sold at markets and crossroads, making them accessible to poor people.
- In the early 20th century, public libraries were established primarily in cities and towns.
- Caste discrimination became a prominent topic in many printed tracts and essays in the late 19th century.
- In 1871, Jyotiba Phule, a Maratha pioneer of 'low caste' protest movements, wrote Gulamgiri about the injustices of the caste system.
- In 1938, Kashibaba published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal, highlighting the connections between caste and class exploitation.
- By the 1930s, Bangalore cotton mill workers, inspired by Bombay workers, established libraries for self-education.
Print and Censorship
- Before 1798, censorship was not a priority for the East India Company's colonial administration.
- The Calcutta Supreme Court passed few regulations on press freedom.
- In 1835, Governor-General Bentinck agreed to review press laws, leading Thomas Macaulay to formulate new rules that restored previous press freedoms.
- Press freedom changed significantly after the Revolt of 1857.
- In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act, modeled on Irish Press Laws, was passed, giving the government extensive power to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press.
- The government monitored vernacular newspapers, but nationalist newspapers proliferated despite repressive measures.
- In 1907, Bal Gangadhar Tilak was imprisoned in 1908 for writing empathetically about the deportation of Punjab revolutionaries in his newspaper Kesari, which sparked widespread protests across India.
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