Principles of Science

• Science uses a systematic and organized approach to understand the natural world through observation, experimentation, and analysis
• Science seeks to establish facts and relationships between phenomena
• Science relies on empirical evidence and logical reasoning
• The scientific method is a process scientists use to investigate phenomena, acquire new knowledge, or correct and integrate previous knowledge
• Science differs from philosophy or religion because it is based on empirical evidence and testable explanations

Core Principles of Science

• Objectivity means basing scientific findings on empirical evidence free from personal biases
• Empiricism entails reliance on observation and experimentation to gather data
• Skepticism means questioning accepted knowledge and being open to new evidence
• Testability requires that scientific hypotheses must be testable through experimentation or observation
• Falsifiability means a scientific theory must be capable of being proven wrong
• Repeatability requires experiments and observations should be reproducible by other researchers

Branches of Science

• Natural sciences study the physical world
• Social sciences study human society and social behavior
• Formal sciences study formal systems, like logic and mathematics
• Applied sciences apply scientific knowledge to practical problems and develop new technologies

Natural Sciences

• Biology is the study of living organisms
  • Zoology focuses on the study of animals
  • Botany is the study of plants
  • Microbiology studies microorganisms
  • Genetics studies heredity and variation in organisms
  • Ecology studies the interactions between organisms and their environment
• Chemistry studies matter and its properties
  • Organic chemistry studies carbon-containing compounds
  • Inorganic chemistry studies non-carbon-containing compounds
  • Biochemistry studies chemical processes in living organisms
  • Physical chemistry studies the physical principles underlying chemical phenomena
  • Analytical chemistry studies the separation, identification, and quantification of chemical components
• Physics studies the fundamental laws of nature and matter and energy properties
  • Classical mechanics studies motion and forces
  • Electromagnetism studies electric and magnetic phenomena
  • Thermodynamics studies heat and energy transfer
  • Quantum mechanics studies the behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic levels
  • Optics studies light and its properties
• Earth science studies the Earth's structure, composition, and processes
  • Geology studies the Earth's crust and its history
  • Meteorology studies the atmosphere and weather
  • Oceanography studies the oceans
  • Astronomy studies celestial objects and the universe

Social Sciences

• Psychology studies the mind and behavior
  • Cognitive psychology studies mental processes like memory, perception, and problem-solving
  • Social psychology studies how individuals think, feel, and behave in social situations
  • Developmental psychology studies how individuals change and develop across the lifespan
  • Clinical psychology studies and treats mental disorders
• Sociology studies human society and social interactions
  • Social stratification studies hierarchical arrangements in society based on wealth, power, and prestige
  • Deviance studies behavior that violates social norms
  • Social change studies the transformation of societies and social institutions
• Economics studies how people make decisions facing scarcity
  • Microeconomics studies the behavior of individuals and firms
  • Macroeconomics studies the behavior of the economy as a whole
• Political science studies government and political systems
  • Comparative politics studies different political systems around the world
  • International relations studies the interactions between states
• Anthropology studies human cultures and societies
  • Cultural anthropology studies cultural beliefs and practices of different societies
  • Archaeology studies past human societies through excavation and analysis of material remains
  • Linguistic anthropology studies language and its relationship to culture and society
  • Physical anthropology studies human evolution and biological variation

Formal Sciences

• Mathematics studies abstract structures, relationships, and patterns
  • Algebra studies algebraic structures and operations
  • Geometry studies shapes, sizes, and positions of objects
  • Calculus studies continuous change
  • Statistics studies the collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and organization of data
• Logic studies the principles of valid reasoning
  • Propositional logic studies logical connectives and truth values
  • Predicate logic studies quantifiers and relations
• Computer science studies computation and information processing
  • Algorithms are step-by-step procedures for solving problems
  • Data structures are ways of organizing and storing data in a computer
  • Programming languages are formal languages used to instruct computers

Applied Sciences

• Engineering applies scientific and mathematical principles to design and build structures, machines, and systems
  • Civil engineering designs and constructs infrastructure
  • Mechanical engineering designs and manufactures machines and mechanical systems
  • Electrical engineering designs and develops electrical systems and devices
  • Chemical engineering designs and operates chemical plants and processes
  • Computer engineering designs and develops computer hardware and software systems
• Medicine diagnoses, treats, and prevents diseases
  • Cardiology studies and treats heart diseases
  • Neurology studies and treats diseases of the nervous system
  • Oncology studies and treats cancer
  • Pediatrics studies and treats diseases of children
• Agriculture is the science and practice of cultivating plants and livestock
  • Agronomy studies crop production and soil management
  • Animal science studies the biology and management of domestic animals
  • Horticulture studies the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants

The Scientific Method

• A systematic approach to conducting research
• Begins with observation
  • Involves noticing a phenomenon or identifying a problem
• Hypothesis development
  • A testable explanation for the observed phenomenon is proposed
• Experimentation
  • Designed to test the hypothesis
  • Involves manipulating variables and measuring outcomes
• Data collection
  • Gathering information through observation and measurement
• Analysis
  • Examining the data to identify patterns and relationships
• Conclusion
  • Based on the analysis, the hypothesis is either supported or rejected
• Peer review
  • An important part of the scientific process.
  • Involves subjecting research findings to the scrutiny of other experts in the field

Scientific Theories

• Theories are well-substantiated explanations of the natural world.
• Based on a body of facts repeatedly confirmed through observation and experimentation
• Enable scientists to make predictions
• Can evolve as new evidence emerges
• Examples include:
  • The theory of evolution
  • The theory of general relativity
  • The germ theory of disease

Scientific Laws

• Laws are descriptive statements or mathematical equations
• Laws reliably predict events under certain conditions
• Laws are often simpler and more focused
• Examples include: -Law of gravity -Laws of thermodynamics -Laws of motion

Measurement in Science

• Quantitative data is critical for scientific research
• Requires the use of standardized units
• The International System of Units (SI) is the standard system of measurement
• Accuracy and precision are important considerations in scientific measurement

The Role of Statistics in Science

• Statistics plays a crucial role in data analysis and interpretation
• Used to summarize and visualize data, test hypotheses, and make inferences
• Statistical significance measures the probability that results are not due to chance

Ethics in Science

• Scientists are expected to conduct their research with integrity and honesty
• Guidelines promote responsible conduct and prevent misconduct
• Issues:
  • Informed consent
  • Conflicts of interest
  • Data fabrication
  • Plagiarism

Science and Technology

• Science advances knowledge
• Technology applies this knowledge to create practical solutions
• Drives innovation and improves quality of life
• The relationship:
  • Iterative
  • Each influences and builds upon the other

Explore the core principles of scientific inquiry, including objectivity, empiricism, skepticism, testability, and falsifiability. Understand how the scientific method distinguishes science from other fields. Learn about the systematic approach to understanding the natural world.