Principles of Microbiology

• Principles of Microbiology is the study of microorganisms.

Learning Objectives

• Differentiate between biology, microbiology, and virology.
• Discuss the importance of understanding microbiology, including its relevance for pharmacy technicians.
• Discuss key concepts like binary fission, aerobic and anaerobic environments, facultative anaerobes etc.
• Explain biological classification of organisms.
• Highlight infections caused by plantae and fungus, including discussions around treatments.

What is microbiology?

• Microbiology encompasses the study of microorganisms.
• The study covers behavior, evolution, ecology, biochemistry, physiology, and pathology of diseases caused by microorganisms.

Branches of microbiology

• Bacteriology is the study of bacteria.
• Immunology studies the immune system involving pathogen-host relationships like bacteria and viruses.
• Mycology involves the study of fungi like yeasts and molds.
• Nematology involves the study of nematodes or roundworms.
• Parasitology which studies parasites, noting that while not all parasites are microorganisms, protozoa and bacteria can be parasitic. The study of bacterial parasites falls under bacteriology.
• Phycology studies algae.
• Protozoology studies protozoa which are single-celled organisms such as amoeba
• Virology studies viruses.

History of microbiology

• Knowledge of microorganisms and their impacts has developed since the late 19th century.
• Until the 1880s, the belief was life could form out of thin air and sickness was caused by sins or bad odors.
• Disease was thought to be caused by bad smells, humor imbalance, or sins
• Bad Smells were treated by removing or masking the odors.
• Humor imbalance was treated with bleeding, sweating or vomiting.
• Sins were treated by prayer and rituals.
• The concept of contagion existed but was attributed to bad odors or spirits, not living creatures.
• Varo and Columella (first century BC) postulated diseases were caused by invisible beings inhaled or ingested.
• Fracastorius of Verona (1546) proposed Contagium vivum as a cause of infectious disease.
• Von Plenciz (1762) suggested each disease was caused by a separate agent.
• Louis Pasteur (1822-95) was a French chemist gave the term microbiology; He's referred to as the "Father of Modern Microbiology / Father of Bacteriology.
• Sedillot (1878) first used the term microbe.
• Robert Hooke was a 17th-century English scientist and the first to use a lens to observe tissues and call them "cells."
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed and described microorganisms accurately with homemade microscopes, calling them ‘animalcules’ in 1676. He is considered the "Father of microbiology" and of bacteriology and protozoology.
• Prior to knowing about microorganisms, scientists thought simple life forms arose spontaneously through spontaneous generation. Life was believed to emerge from nutrient-rich environments, and this idea persisted into the late 19th century.

Charles Darwin

• In 1859, Darwin showed the human body was susceptible to natural laws and diseases were biological.
• Darwin’s contributions include the concept of survival of the fittest, organisms adapting to their environment, and taxonomic categories based on evolutionary relationships.

The Golden Age

• The Golden Age of microbiology began with Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch's institutes.
• Spontaneous generation was disproved by Louis Pasteur with experiments using a goosenecked flask.
• The concept of spontaneous generation was put to rest in this era.
• Robert Koch was the German physician who gave the first direct demonstration of the role of bacteria in disease with finding the causes of animal diseases(anthrax then tuberculosis). In 1876 he isolated anthrax bacillus (Bacillus anthracis) and he perfected isolation techniques for bacteria in pure culture.
• He developed four postulates that determines if a disease has been introduced by a bacteria
• The organism causing the disease can be found in sick individuals but not in healthy ones.
• The organism can be isolated and grown in pure culture.
• The organism must cause the disease when it is introduced into a healthy animal.
• The organism must be recovered from the infected animal and shown to be the same as the organism that was introduced.
• Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch established the Germ theory of disease, that diseases are said to be caused by microorganisms.
• Discovery that microbes caused disease led to dramatically improved medical practices.
• Joseph Lister (1827-1912) an English surgeon, developed Joseph lister is known as the Father of Antiseptic surgery with antiseptic treatments were used in treatment for prevention and cure of wound infections

Vaccination

• In the late 18th century, it was noted milkmaids who contracted nonlethal cowpox were spared deadly smallpox.
• Edward Jenner used pus from cowpox to vaccinate against smallpox, eventually called vaccination and the practice replaced the riskier method of using smallpox.
• Emile Roux (1853-1933) and Alexandre Yersin notable French bacteriologists; They demonstrated toxin in filtrates of broth cultures of diphtheria organism.
• Gerhard Domagk (Germany, 1935) experimented with synthetic dyes and reported that Prontosil, a red dye used for staining leather, was active against streptococci and staphylococci in mice, even though it had no effect against the infectious agent in a test tube.
• Sir Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1929 while searching for something to kill pathogens, influenced by his work on wound infections during World War I.

The field of molecular biology

• This field has understood the genetic code, how DNA is regulated, and how RNA is translated into proteins.
• Research focused mainly on plant and animal cells.
• Eventually when the researchers switched to studying these processes in bacteria, many of the secrets of genes and enzymes started to reveal themselves.

Types of cells

• Cells include prokaryotic which lack a nucleus and eukaryotic which have a clearly defined nucleus inside a nuclear membrane.

Phylogenetic Tree of Life

• Represents the evolutionary relationships between organisms.

Taxonomy

• The science of classification of living and extinct organisms based on arrangement and law.
  • The methodology sets up arrangements of the kinds of plants and animals in hierarchies of superior and subordinate groups.
• Organisms are classified into a hierarchy of Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species.

The 5 Kingdom Classification

• Robert Whittaker (1969) proposed a taxonomic classification of the world's biota.
• The classification includes Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, and Monera.

Kingdom characteristics

• Plantae: They contain Chloroplasts, Vacuoles, a cellulose cell wall, and are derived from food.
• Animalia: Have Nucleus contains, DNA, derive energy from food, and have no cell wall.
• Fungi: Have DNA within nuclear membrane, are fleshy-type, yeast or molds, aerobes or facultative anaerobes.
• Protista: Typically is Unicellular, eukaryotic, most are heterotrophic, typically don't cause disease. Has 4 types being Sarcodines, Ciliates, Flagellates,Sporozoans
• Monera: Are reproduced through binary fission, do not have nuclear envelope, and are able to live in most inhospitable environments, aerobic or anaerobic

Infectious plantae

• Azaleas, Bleeding Hearts, Foxglove, Irises, Larkspur, Mistletoe, Oleander, Poison Ivy & Poison Oak, Rhubarb, Wisteria
• Symptoms vary from fatal symptoms, Poisonous effects, skin & throat irritation.

Medications to treat Poison Ivy & Poison Oak

• Benadryl (Oral & Topical)
• Hydrocortisone
• Prednisone
• Determine the scheduling of certain drugs via NAPRA and/or Health Canada (or eCPS/CPS) to determine details of medical brands and adverse effects

Infectious animalia

• Most diseases carried by animals are either bacterial or viral.
• True animal diseases are those that produce their own toxins.
• An Example being the Jellyfish

Mycoses

• Yeast (Candida): Warm and Moist area when infection has conditions favorable to overgrowth on skin, mucous membrane.
• Dermatophytes: Skin infections are caused here with the dead keratin
• A Dermatophyte tinea is named for location of infection with a population of 20% as a skin & nail ailment

Fungal Infections

• Commonly caused by the yeast-form, Candida Albicans.
• Bacterial flora helps maintain balance, Antibiotics that destroy normal bacterial flora can cause fungus to proliferate to cause fungal infection

Tinea Infections

• Tinea Manus: Hand ailment
• Tinea Pedis: Foot ailment
• Tinea Corporis Body ailment
• Tinea Capitis: is a Head aliment
• Tinea Unguium: Nail ailment

Tinea Pedis (Athlete's Foot)

• Symptoms Peeling, Flaking skin, and Redness, itching burning w/ possible foul odor. *Skin cracks – secondary bacterial infections here
• Prevent via change sock daily, thoroughly dry feet between toes Avoid going barefoot in public places with use antifungal powder if history

Onychomycosis (Tinea Unguium )

• Has Discolored, thick that tends to fall off with the ailment being hard to treat with topical

Tinea Corporis is very Contagious

• Is spread by physical contact
• Can Spread between species

Thrush

• A Candida infection is created in one's mouth with high prevalence in Infants. Also adults with compromised immune system or ones use of inhaled corticosteroids is a contributing factor.

Drug classes used to treat fungal infections and their mechanisms of action

• Imidazoles & Triazoles; Interferes with synthesis of fungal cell membrane with Clotrimazole, Fluconazole, Itraconazole, Ketoconazole, Miconazole, and Terconazole products
• Allylamine Antifungals; Stunt growth of fungi, Terbinafine is often a long-lasting therapy that consists of Oral use for 3-18 weeks for therapeutic levels with Persisting 2-3 weeks after discontinue *
• Polyenes Inhibit synthesis of fungal cell membrane, the reaction is kept minimal with Oral administration causing nausea can diarrhea.
• Miscellaneous Agent contains Ciclopirox that is used to treats Interfere with DNA & RNA. Often burning, stinging, itching, swelling, is experienced in patients.
• Thiocarbamates is created to stunts growth of dermatophytes. There are None notable Side-effects.

Auxiliary labeling for all inhalers:

• Metered Dose Inhalers (MDIs): use the propellant hydrofluoroalkane (HFA) to deliver medication to the lungs
• Dry Powder Inhalers (DPIs): contain a dose of one or more medications in a dry powder form (diskus forms of inhalers, flovent HFA vs Flovent diskus

Common Asthma products and proper consumption/auxiliary.

• Ventolin MDI (salbutamol): shake well. Do not exceed recommended dose.
• Ventolin Diskus: Do not exceed recommended dose.
• Atrovent HFA (iptrobrimode): Shake well, do not exceed recommended dose.
• Spirivia capsules for inhalation (Black and yellow auxiliary labeling): Do not swallow Spiriva is for inhalation only.
• Spiriva Respimat Do not exceed specified dose
• Advair HFA: Shake well before spraying Do not exceed specified dose, Rinse mouth thoroughly after each use
• Advair Diskus specified dose is very important (Do not exceed) Make sure to rinse your mouth after each dose with water.
• Fluvet HFA: Shake well, rinse mouth after use
• Fluvet Diskus: Rinse mouth after use,
• Zenhale: Shake and Rinse mouth after each use

Newman’s All Purpose Nipple Ointment

• Often combined with Jack Newmans Breastfeeding practice that is prevalent in Toronto Canada: 2% Miconazole powder in Mupirocin 2% ung with adding Betamethasone 0.05% ung (1:1)