Principle of Utility in Ethics

Marx's Theory of History

• Human beings have basic material needs that must be met, such as shelter, water, food, and clothing, before they can receive any political or intellectual form of life.
• Marx argues that material life is what transforms human history, contrary to Hegel's idea that the realm of ideas is the primary driver of change.
• Marx's theory of history emphasizes the importance of material conditions and their impact on non-material aspects of society, such as politics and ideology.

Synchronic Materialism

• Synchronic materialism involves analyzing society at a specific moment in time, like taking a snapshot of a slave society or a feudal or capitalist system.
• This approach highlights the interplay between material conditions and non-material aspects of society.
• Material life also limits the possibilities of non-material life, as illustrated by the base-superstructure metaphor.

Base-Superstructure Metaphor

• Relations of production involve the relationships between:
  • People and other people (e.g., slave owner and slave)
  • People and productive forces (e.g., ownership and control over means of production)
• Effective ownership refers to the ability to control and utilize something or someone.
• Examples of ownership positions include:
  • Slave: none of both labor power and means of production
  • Serf: some labor power and some means of production
  • Proletarian: all labor power and no means of production
  • Independent producer: all labor power and all means of production

Productive Forces

• Productive forces include:
  • Instruments of production (e.g., tools and machines)
  • Raw materials
  • Labor power (the productive faculties of producing agents)
• The base of society refers to the entire set of relations of production.
• The superstructure includes legal and political institutions, as well as other aspects of society.

Mill's Utilitarianism

• Mill argues that happiness is desirable, and the greatest happiness is desirable, and that nothing other than happiness is desirable.
• He provides an empirical proof of the principle of utility, which involves three stages:
  1. Happiness is desirable
  2. The greatest happiness is desirable
  3. Nothing other than happiness is desirable
• Mill's argument is challenged by the "is-ought" fallacy, which questions whether people ought to desire happiness simply because they often pursue it in their actions.

The "Proof" of the Principle of Utility

• Stage 1: Happiness is desirable (Mill argues that happiness is desirable by appealing to empirical evidence)
• Stage 2: The greatest happiness is desirable (Mill emphasizes impartiality and the consideration of everyone's happiness equally)
• Stage 3: Nothing other than happiness is desirable (Mill rejects the notion that virtue or other goods can be intrinsically desired apart from their contribution to happiness)

Central Issue #3 - Justice and Utilitarianism

• Act utilitarianism involves directly applying utilitarianism to individual actions, evaluating each action based on its consequences and the principle of maximizing overall happiness.
• Rule utilitarianism suggests that instead of evaluating each action individually, one should follow rules or principles that, when universally applied, maximize happiness.
• Mill is often interpreted as an act utilitarian, but he also acknowledges the importance of customary morality or secondary rules in guiding behavior.

On Liberty

• The Harm/Liberty Principle emphasizes the importance of individual freedom and autonomy, arguing that individuals should have the liberty to live their lives as they see fit, without interference from others or from the state, as long as their actions don't harm others.
• The principle sets limits on the authority of society and government to intervene in the lives of individuals, and focuses on harm to others as the criterion for justifying coercive intervention.

Marx's Proposals

• System of "checks and balances" to divide government powers among different branches and prevent the concentration of power in one authority.
• Limits on campaign expenditures to prevent excessive financial influence in politics.
• Members of government should not be paid, as this aligns with the notion of civic duty.
• Open vote (rather than secret ballot) to promote transparency and accountability.
• Exclude some individuals from voting (e.g., those who can't read or write) and give extra votes to the well-educated.

Explore the concept of the principle of utility in ethics, which judges actions based on their impact on happiness. Learn how this principle applies not only to individual actions but also to government policies.