Presidential Accountability and Wilson's Views

Q1

• Article II of the Constitution begins with a vesting clause, stating "the executive power shall be vested in a president of the United States."
• Advocates for presidential restraint believe this vesting clause is merely an introductory statement, lacking significant meaning.
• Advocates for presidential strength view it as an undefined and non-enumerated reservoir of executive power beyond specific, listed powers.
• This ambiguity allows for interpretation, including executive prerogative and the concept of salus populi.
• John Locke and William Blackstone supported the notion of substantial presidential discretion, arguing that executive prerogative allows presidents to act for the public good without strict legal mandates.
• Presidential power extends to actions that respond spontaneously to circumstances affecting the public good.
• Salus populi is a doctrine suggesting that, when the law compromises public welfare, executive action should prevail.
• Thomas Jefferson's presidency, including the Louisiana Purchase and Chesapeake Affair showcase salus populi in action despite potential lack of direct constitutional support.
• Executive prerogative and the salus populi doctrine are extra-constitutional sources of authority presidents can utilize for legitimate unilateral action.

Q 2

• Presidential emergency powers encompass the president's ability to make quick, decisive actions in response to emergencies that go beyond strict constitutional boundaries.
• Abraham Lincoln is credited with first employing the "doctrine of emergency powers" by justifying various actions, including a blockade of southern ports and the expansion of the military, on the basis of necessity during the Civil War.
• Subsequent presidents have expanded the exercise of emergency powers.
• Examples of these expansions include President Grover Cleveland's deployment of troops during a railway strike and Theodore Roosevelt's response to the 1902 anthracite coal strike, and Harry S. Truman's seizing of steel mills during a labor dispute.
• These instances demonstrated the evolving interpretation of presidential power during emergencies.

Q3

• Two periods of republican experimentation with executive power followed the founding of the U.S.
• "Radical" republicanism prioritized limiting executive power, emphasizing the risk of executive corruption.
• "Conservative" republicanism prioritized strengthening executive power, arguing that the legislature was more prone to corruption.
• The new American presidency, established in 1789, combined aspects of both radical and conservative republican thought to form a new structure for executive power. This involved considerations of executive structure, executive independence, executive power, and executive selection.
• The decision for a unitary executive was supported both by conservative and radical Republicans, for different reasons. Conservatives believed a single executive would make quicker decisions, while radicals expected a unitary executive to be a more effective constraint on executive power.
• The four-year presidential term emerged from a compromise between the preferences for longer and shorter terms.
• The act of enumeration was used by both radicals and conservatives to set boundaries and structure on executive power.

Q4

• Woodrow Wilson offered a contrasting perspective on the relationship between the public, leaders, and the presidency:
• Wilson argued that the president's role was to interpret and translate public desires into effective policies.
• Wilson emphasized that a leader's ability to interpret true public sentiment, often amidst conflicting voices, is crucial. 
• This process is distinct from demagoguery, as demagogues appeal to popular passions rather than to a reasoned public sentiment.
• A successful interpreter is capable of both understanding complex public sentiments and articulating a compelling, persuasive vision.
• Wilson used the example of Daniel Webster to illustrate a leader's capacity for interpreting and translating public opinion into sound policy.
• The presidency's strength for leadership comes from the public's capacity for immediate, widespread feedback.
• Public access to the President is critical.

Q5

• In the "old way" of exercising presidential leadership, direct public engagement was limited. 
• Presidents primarily communicated through written messages and focused on communicating with congressional party leaders.
• In the "new way" of exercising presidential leadership, direct engagement with the public was amplified.
• Presidents utilized mass media and direct communication to gain public support for their agendas.
• Presidential leadership is crucial for shaping the public agenda.
• Presidents can influence the public agenda.
• Theodore Roosevelt's strategy for the Hepburn Act illustrates a "middle way," combining elements of the "old way" and the "new way". President Roosevelt simultaneously communicated with the public and worked with Congress to get the act passed.

Q6

• Microtargeting is the practice of analyzing personal data to tailor communication messages to specific individuals and groups.
• Microtargeting is used in political campaigns to target audiences likely to support candidates.
• Microtargeting is widely used in contemporary presidential campaigns across demographics.
• The use of microtargeting in presidential campaigns has allowed candidates to narrow the scope of their appeals to specific voter demographics, raising the likelihood they'll garner their support.

Q7

• Counter-majoritarian outcomes occur when presidential electors choose a candidate different from the popular vote winner.
• The Electoral College votes are allocated differently from popular votes.
• The allocated method of Electoral College votes often leads to disparate outcomes because some states use winner-takes-all systems that could cause candidates to get popular votes but not win the presidency.
• Counter-majoritarian outcomes can result from the winners of individual states getting all the Electoral College votes from a state—giving the false impression that one candidate won an election.
• The allocation of Electoral College votes in a particular state influences how a presidential candidate gains Electoral College votes, resulting in possible counter-majoritarian outcomes.

Q8

• Prior to McGovern-Fraser reforms, presidential nominations were primarily controlled by party elites.
• "Smoke-filled rooms" refer to the secretive backroom meetings where party elites made nominations in the past.
• McGovern-Fraser reforms altered the candidate nomination process by increasing the involvement of ordinary voters.
• These reforms led to increased use of state primaries to select delegates for presidential nomination conventions, allowing ordinary voters a better say in choosing presidential nominees.

Q9

• The invisible primary is a period before the formal primary season.
• Candidates engage in campaigning, fundraising, and building support among party elites during this period.
• The results of the invisible primary can influence the direction of the formal primary process.

Q10

• The formal primary takes place when voters directly choose their party's nominee.
• The invisible primary is the pre-formal-primary phase. During the invisible phase, candidates build support and momentum among party elites.

Q11

• The bandwagon effect is a phenomenon where candidates’ victory in early primaries encourages voters in later states to support them.
• Unequal information flow between early and later state voters is a factor in the bandwagon effect.
• Frontloading is the practice of moving primary dates earlier in the calendar year.

Q12

• Doherty presents a concept of a “permanent campaign”, arguing that campaigning continues throughout the presidency.
• Rising campaign costs have made fundraising a major focus for presidents.
• Geographic travel patterns of presidents are often influenced by factors other than presidential election incentives.

Q13

• Geography of presidential fundraising is not solely driven by factors of electoral advantage; presidential fundraising is heavily influenced by factors such as the concentration of wealth, political contributors, and the importance of large fundraising events.
• The focus on certain states in presidential fundraising patterns varies significantly based on various factors.

Q14

• Brown argues that crises of legitimacy and candidate agency influence the evolution of presidential nomination processes, including the congressional caucus, national convention, and primary systems.
• Candidates need to be capable of campaigning and fundraising to succeed in the modern nomination process.

Q15

• Howard Dean's rise was influenced by effective fundraising, technological utilization, strong grassroots campaigning, and prominent endorsements.
• His use of technology to bypass traditional fundraising mechanisms was a notable highlight.
• Dean's early success attracted intense media scrutiny, which negatively impacted his campaign.
• Dean's unexpected third-place finish in the Iowa caucuses contributed to his eventual withdrawal from the race.

Q16

• Presidential decisions are frequently marked as contentious during periods of crisis.
• The aftermath of the 9/11 attacks demonstrates how factors such as national security often influence presidential decisions.