Prehistory: Stone and Metal Ages

Prehistory Overview

• Prehistory spans from the emergence of hominids to the development of written records around 3500 BC in the Near East
• This period covers the transformation of humans from cave dwellers to complex societies
• Complex societies eventually evolved into early states and civilizations
• Prehistory encompasses over 2.5 million years
• Historians traditionally divide it into the Stone Age and the Metal Age
• The Stone Age is further divided into the Paleolithic, Mesolithic (a transitional period), and Neolithic eras

Paleolithic Period

• The Paleolithic is the longest phase of human existence, accounting for over 99% of it
• Hominids learned to carve small tools from stone, bone, and animal antlers
• Evidence suggests the domestication of fire during this period
• Domesticating fire was a major advancement in human progress, alongside the invention of writing
• Humans lived outdoors or in caves
• They subsisted on plants, fruits, and hunted animals
• Paleolithic societies were primarily hunter-gatherer
• People moved to areas with abundant food sources, leading a nomadic lifestyle
• The "mitochondrial Eve" is regarded by experts as the first Homo Sapiens appearing in Africa, the ancestor of all humanity
• Homo Sapiens colonized the entire Earth, encountering other Homo species that evolved differently

Neolithic Revolution

• The Neolithic Revolution marked a radical shift in human lifestyle
• Post the last ice age, climate changes impacted food gathering
• Rising temperatures and glacial retreat around 10,000 BC made plant collection difficult
• Declining or extinct megafauna complicated hunting
• The Neolithic period, meaning "new stone," saw humans create more sophisticated polished stone tools
• The true Neolithic Revolution was the rise of agriculture and animal domestication
• Humans settled near fertile river basins(Nile, Tigris and the Euphrates), initiating neolithization in the Fertile Crescent
• The transition was gradual and varied across regions and didn't fully replace old ways of life
• Animal domestication occurred during this time, excluding the dog, which was domesticated earlier
• Plant species were domesticated, and crop yields were managed
• Wheat, barley, and legumes such as lentils, chickpeas, and peas were among the first crops
• Self-sufficient food production reduced nomadic movement
• This system improved only in areas of favorable climate and soil
• Sedentary lifestyles became common
• Early farmers developed a sense of ownership, forming villages
• Jericho (Palestine), Syria, and Catalhoyuk (Anatolia) are examples of important Neolithic settlements
• Food surpluses led to storage practices, trade, and protection needs
• Social hierarchies, states, and armies emerged during this period

Mesopotamian Civilizations and the Emergence of Writing

• Mesopotamia saw successive civilizations over three millennia, like the Sumerians, Babylonians and Assyrians
• Writing originated in Mesopotamia around 3500 BC, from systems that tracked livestock and grain amounts
• This writing was cuneiform, using pictograms inscribed on clay tablets, then baked
• This marked the transition from prehistory to history, as people began to write down history

Ancient Egypt: Geography and Agriculture

• Ancient Egypt started when settlements along the Nile River's fertile banks unified
• Historians divide Egypt's history into periods like the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms
• Egypt was geographically divided into Upper (south) and Lower (north) Egypt
• The symbols of Upper and Lower Egypt feature a white and red crown respectively, and their combination symbolizes a united Egypt
• Egyptian civilization developed for over 3,000 years, beginning around 3150 BC with the unification of Nile Valley
• The civilization ended in 31 BC when Roman troops led by Octavian defeated Mark Antony
• Antony was an ally/lover of Queen Cleopatra, the last great ruler of Egypt's long line of pharaohs
• The Nile was essential to the civilization's success, providing resources and transportation
• Annual Nile floods deposited a layer of fertile silt along the banks, enriching the soil and providing excellent harvests

Ancient Egypt: Historical Periods

• The Archaic Period (3100-2700 BC) followed the Predynastic Period, when Upper and Lower Egypt emerged
• Tradition credits Menes with unifying Egypt, also identified with Narmer, the founder of the First Dynasty
• Narmer was the first known pharaoh to rule over a united Egypt
• The Archaic Period includes the First and Second Dynasties
• The Old Kingdom began in 2700 BC under the Third Dynasty
• Memphis was established as the permanent capital
• Large pyramids and stone monuments became customary, beginning with Pharaoh Djoser
• The Step Pyramid of Djoser in Saqqara, is an example of pyramid construction
• The Fourth Dynasty led to the construction of the famous pyramids of pharaohs Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure
• This marked the only wonder of the ancient world that still stands today
• A period of decline began in 2250 BC with famine and anarchy, decentralizing the pharaohs' power
• Mentuhotep II reunified Upper and Lower Egypt in 2050 BC, beginning the Middle Kingdom
• The period was characterized by economic prosperity and foreign expansion + pragmatic rulers
• The capital was moved to Thebes
• Irrigation projects to regulate the Nile's floods were undertaken
• Commercial relations with surrounding areas were enhanced
• Artistic representations became more humanized, and the cult of Amun was established
• Around 1800 BC, the Hyksos, originating from Canaan, invaded northern Egypt
• Hyksos established themselves in the Nile Delta, leading to political fragmentation
• Hyksos didn't interfere with Egyptian culture, adopting local beliefs but introduced the horse, chariot, and Bronze Age elements
• A liberation by Theban rulers began against the Hyksos and resulted in the New Kingdom around 1550 BC
• The New Kingdom saw constant warfare and expansion
• The expansion was initially justified as a defense against invasions
• Advances adopted from the Hyksos proved decisive
• This period was an era of splendour and monumental architecture
• Thebes regained its importance with temples in Karnak and Luxor dedicated to Amun
• Amun's cult reached great importance, with the capitals of the empire being Thebes and Memphis
• Amenhotep III's reign marked economical prosperity
• His son, Amenhotep IV (later Akhenaten), enacted radical reforms, changing his name and promoted the sun deity Aten, initiating monotheism
• The pharaoh suppressed other deities' cults and diminished the power of Amun's priests, moving the capital to Akhetaten (Amarna)
• Akhenaten's wife, Nefertiti, played a vital political and religious role
• Following Akhenaten's death, Tutankhamun restored Amun's cult, polytheism, and priestly power
• Tutankhamun is known for the discovery of his tomb in 1922 by Howard Carter
• Ramses II (the Great) constructed temples and monumental architecture like Abu Simbel
• He also moved the capital to Pi-Ramesses
• Ramses II led successful military campaigns, and fought the Hittites at the Battle of Kadesh
• He formed a peace treaty with the Hittite kingdom, marking the oldest recorded peace treaty
• Around 1060 BC, a long period of decline and political fragmentation began
• Egypt experienced dominance by Libyans, Palestinians, Persians, Nubians, and Greeks
• Egyptian civilization influenced the culture of its rulers
• Subsequent conflicts, including the Battle of Actium, led to Egypt becoming a province of Roman Empire

Ancient Egypt: Pyramids and Religion

• Pyramids were monuments for pharaohs, designed to contain their essence for eternity
• They were intended as vehicles connecting Earth and the heavens, facilitating resurrection as a star among divine beings
• Pyramids evolved in form from mastabas, the terraced pyramids are thought to act like a staircase to the sky
• The exact construction methods of pyramids are unknown, which has inspired theories on their construction, including extraterrestrial assistance
• Religion permeated all aspects of life, including afterlife preparations
• Egyptians believed in the afterlife, hence the practice of mummification
• Along with mummification comes preserving the body for the afterlife and including belongings and treasures in tombs
• From the New Kingdom, pharaohs and government members were buried in necropolises like the Valley of the Kings, Queens, and Nobles

Ancient Egypt: Gods and Writing

• The Egyptian mythology complex varied across regions and history
• Each region maintained its own patron deities, varying in importance
• Egyptian pantheon grouped deities in triads, typically a couple and offspring
• Heliopolis worshipped Isis, Osiris, and Horus and Thebes observed Amun, Mut, and Khonsu
• Egyptian deities were often depicted with human bodies and animal heads
• During Greek influence, the triad of Osiris, Isis, and Horus remained prominent
• Ancient Egyptians developed a hieroglyphic writing system, used since before the Archaic Period
• The Rosetta Stone, discovered in 1799, containing hieroglyphic, demotic, deciphered by Champollion and Greek inscriptions unlocked hieroglyphic writing after many centuries
• Hieroglyphic writing is complex, with drawings as ideograms and phonograms
• Ideograms are figurative translations of symbols
• Phonograms represent sounds of the Egyptian language
• During the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms, there were about 700 hieroglyphic symbols, increasing to over 6,000 in the Greco-Roman era

Ancient Egypt: Social structure

• The Egyptian society was structured like a pyramid
• The pharaoh was at the top of the structure; Egyptians worshipped them as Gods
• Priests were the second most important class, satisfying the gods' needs
• Priests were maintained through tax-exempt donations and wielded enormous power
• Scribes worked in government departments, composing texts and keeping accounts, reaching high-ranking positions
• Their noble occupation was often passed down through families
• Soldiers, merchants, artisans, and farmers followed
• Slaves were at the base, performing the most strenuous tasks

Ancient Greece Overview:Timeline & Civilizations

• Ancient Greece, together with Christianity, are the source of culture and traditions in western societies
• The Ancient Greece civilization timeline is in four periods: the Dark Ages, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic Period
• The civilization originated from the Cretian, Minoan, and Mycenaean civilizations
• The Cretans built palaces that consisted of big rooms, stairs, gardens, and storage
• The main archaeological excavation site is Mycenae, which contains the gate lions
• The Mycenaeans (Hellenes) are the first advanced Greek civilization and used Linear B as their writing system
• They had a structured and organized economics which was dependent on trading products such as oil, wool, wine, and slaves
• The Mycenaeans are considered to be the ancestors of the Greek civilization

Ancient Greece: Dark Ages, Archaic Era, and Growth

• The Dark Ages occurred between 1200 to 776 BC, due to few sources and documents being found
• It marks the transition from the Bronze Age to an Iron Age society
• It represents the transition from the pre-Hellenic to the Hellenic period
• It covers what happened between the decomposition of the Mycenaean world to the Hellenic world
• The Archaic Era occurred between 776 to 499 BC
• The population grew, and more territories were needed, therefore they expanded
• The Greek tribes established themselves in the continent of Greece and the islands in the sea
• Those tribes spoke different languages of the Greek languages
• The tribes are the Achaeans, Ionians, Dorians, Aeolians, Arcadians
• The nobility gained power and formed cities such as Athens, Thebes, Sparta, Corinth, Argos
• The need to move and conquer more territories was due to population growth
• The new economics led to a rise to the use of Hoplites (infantry), which resulted to the use of Triremes
• The Oracle of Delphi was a deciding factor for the new territories
• Romans called the habitants Greeks because they called each other Hellenes

Ancient Greece: Classical Era

• The Classical period began in 499 to 323 BC
• This era consists of a time when Greeks fought together versus the Iranian empire, which had a Greek group that didn't want their rule
• They won battles in Salamis and Thermopylae, led by King Leonidas
• This marked when the Athenians began their splendor
• The Athenians and the Spartans began a long civil war, where the Athenians lost
• The Hellenistic era occurred between 323 to 30 BC
• Alexander, son of Phillip II, inherited an army and defeated the Persian empire, expanding the army throughout the Mediterranean
• The Romans began to take over by taking over zones colonized by the Greeks, such as the dynasty of the Ptolemies in Egypt with Cleopatra as its last member
• After their death, the Romans began absorbed all cultural elements around the Greeks
• In Sparta, there was a diarchy which lasted a long time
• The Spartan contribution to their civilisation was poorer compared to the Athenians
• In Sparta, there was a form of politics known as democracy
• Dominant religious buildings were located on hills in the cities