Prehistoric Britain Overview

Prehistoric Britain

• Earliest evidence of human presence in Britain dates back 950,000 years ago, during the Paleolithic period.
• Early settlers, hunter-gatherers from Europe (circa 8000 BC), were the first Britons.
• Tools like carved stone edges and hand axes reveal early inhabitants, likely Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis.
• Wooden spears from Essex (circa 450,000 years ago) show hunting and scavenging.
• Flint flakes demonstrate early toolmaking sophistication.
• The Upper Paleolithic saw the emergence of Homo sapiens, evidenced by wisdom teeth.
• The last ice age forced migrations, with limestone gorges providing shelter.
• Britain's warming (circa 11,300 years ago) supported the growth of birch, pine, oak, hazel, lime, and elm trees.
• Hunter-gatherers hunted reindeer and horses; later, red deer and boar, requiring tool adaptations.
• The Mesolithic period saw winter and summer settlements for survival.
• Coastal settlements prioritized fishing and shellfish collection, leading to sea-based tool innovations.
• Agriculture (circa 4100 BC) arrived from the East, due to population growth and resource scarcity.
• Mass flint tools with wooden handles cleared land for agriculture, pastures, and settlements.
• Wheat and barley were primary crops; pigs and cattle were domesticated.
• Early domestic buildings (long houses, long barrows) emerged during the Mesolithic.
• The Neolithic period brought dramatic changes in technology, landscape, and settlements.
• Causeway enclosures (circular monuments with banks and ditches), of up to 10 kilometers in length, became common.
• Arrowhead designs evolved from leaf-like to chisel and transverse, potentially due to group interaction.
• Arrowheads also deterred theft, suggesting evolving social taboos against murder in the middle Neolithic.

The Bronze Age (2200 BC)

• Bronze Age began with bronze tools and beaker-style pottery.
• Bronze (scarcer than iron) primarily for tools, gold for jewelry.
• Tin (another scarce resource), alloyed with copper to create bronze,
• Bronze's low melting point allowed more intricate designs (daggers, halberds, axes, superior to stone tools).
• Casting with molds refined designs.
• Bronze harder than copper due to tin's atomic reinforcement.
• Beaker pots persisted with refined designs and decorations.
• Intact beakers and pottery in burials provide insights into craftsmanship and use.
• Longer daggers evolved into early swords (rapier) during the middle Bronze Age.
• Social conflict between groups caused variations in weapons and shields.
• Evidence suggests neighbor settlements potentially damaged weaponry before interment.
• Cremation burial practices occurred alongside scattering remains.
• Land boundaries, livestock pens, and agricultural fields emerged during the Bronze Age, alongside copper mines (e.g., Great Orme, Wales, supplying 90% NW European axes).
• Climate change (e.g., Mount Hekla eruption) caused settlement shifts, some incorporating raised settlements over wetlands.
• Peat bogs surrounding the settlements preserved cloth, food, tools' furniture, and wooden objects.
• The decline of Bronze value led to foundries withholding products—early market strategy in British history—emerging in the late Bronze age.

The Iron Age (1200 BC)

• Iron Age began in the Middle East and Southeast Europe, known for iron and steel crafting.
• Early iron smelting began during the late Bronze Age, accelerating during the Iron Age.
• Iron's strength and durability allowed advancements in tools, agriculture, settlements, and weaponry.
• Art, farming techniques, religious beliefs, and alphabetic writing developed.
• The Iron Age spread to central northern Europe, arriving in Britain around 600 BC.
• The Hallstatt culture (early Iron Age) was known for fortified settlements, livestock rearing, and wealthy elites.
• The Hallstatt culture's decline led to new groups like Mycenaeans, Greeks, Etruscans, Romans, and Celts.
• The Celts, a powerful group, expanded across Britain, Ireland, France, and Spain.

The Celts

• Celtic culture emerged by 1200 BC, spreading across Europe, significantly anchoring in Britain and Ireland.
• Roman historians called the Celts "Gauls" (circa 700 BC).
• Despite being advanced societies, the Celts were deemed "barbarians" by the Greeks and Romans.
• The Celts held power over large territories, including Ireland and parts of France.
• Julius Caesar's attacks on Celtic settlements, including several attempts on Britain and the subsequent conquest of Gaul, were driven by disruption of Belgae trade routes and control of English Channel trading.

The Roman Invasion of Britain

• The Roman Empire, expanding in Gaul, had interest in Britain's trade and silver resources.
• Attempts by emperors Augustus and Caligula to invade were symbolic.
• Claudius successfully invaded Britain (43 AD) with four legions, landing at Richborough.
• Romans rapidly conquered the Catavilani, reaching Wales by 60 AD.
• Londinium (London) became a Roman city.
• Celtic leader Keraticus's resistance movement against Rome failed.
• Bodica, wife of the Iceni king, led a rebellion after his death.
• Bodica's attacks on Londinium led to Roman counteraction.
• Bodica's death is believed to have been from a self-inflicted poison rather than surrender to the Romans.
• The Romans conquered the Druid stronghold at Anglesey.
• Policies under Terpolianus changed the Roman approach to rule in Britain.

Roman Rule in Britain

• Britons adopted Roman culture, rebuilding settlements (especially London).
• Taxes were implemented, mining improved, livestock/grain production increased, and trade flourished.
• Roads connected key locations, fostering trade.
• Roman culture influenced through amphitheaters, baths, and introduction of Latin.
• Fortified military garrisons were built by 130 AD across Britain.
• Roman expansion into Ireland further integrated their culture.
• Britain divided into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior; this was for effective administrative control for the Romans.
• The Roman Empire faced threats from Picts in Scotland, Scots in Ireland, and Saxons in Germany.
• Britain experienced temporary separation from Rome but was reconquered in 296 AD.

The Fall Of Rome

• By the 4th century, the Roman Empire was weakened, potentially due to the rise of Christianity and dwindling food resources.
• The last Roman emperors withdrew from Britain, leaving citizens to govern locally.
• Despite the withdrawal, British culture continued to have a lasting influence.

The Viking Age

• The Vikings arrived in Britain in 793 CE.
• Their first act of violence was the plundering of a Christian monastery.
• Raids on England, Scotland, and Ireland were frequent.
• Ivar the Boneless (son of Ragnar Lothbrok) led the great Heathen Army.
• By 870 CE, the Vikings had conquered most of British kingdoms except Wessex, ruled by Alfred the Great.
• Alfred the Great defeated Guthrum (Viking leader) at the Battle of Eddington (878 CE).
• The Treaty of Wedmore, required Guthrum to be baptized, defined borders, and established trade routes.
• The Vikings established Danelaw, a territory encompassing London.
• Viking and Anglo-Saxon interactions led to intermarriages and cultural exchange.
• The influence of Viking language is evident in various English words.

Anglo-Saxon Rule

• Anglo-Saxons improved their settlements with multiple-generational households, largely built of wood with thatched roofs.
• The hearth (central fire) was core to household life.
• Principal occupations involved farming, livestock care, and skilled professions (blacksmithing, carpentry).
• Children worked alongside adults in farming activities.
• The Anglo-Saxons developed the plow, and adapted horse-power to improve agricultural output.

The Norman Invasion

• William the Conqueror invaded and conquered England in 1066.
• Normans introduced stone architecture, impacting structures like Canterbury Cathedral, the Tower of London, and Oxford University.
• The Domesday Book, a comprehensive land survey, was commissioned under William.
• The Norman invasion introduced feudalism, displacing Anglo-Saxon landowners, and dividing land among William, the Church of Rome, and loyalists.
• Nobles received land in exchange for providing soldiers.
• Normans introduced new products into English food like herbs and spices.

The Middle Ages

• The Middle Ages (400-1485) encompassed Early, High, and Late periods, encompassing Viking and Anglo-Saxon rule, concluding with the Norman conquest of 1066.
• The High and Late Middle Ages (11th-13th centuries) witnessed significant social transformations.
• The Renaissance's rise in this period fostered artistic expression and storytelling, influencing important playwrights like William Shakespeare.

The Anarchy and The Reign of Henry II

• The Anarchy (1138-1154), a civil war following Stephen of Blois's kingship, saw the challenge to Stephen's reign from the Empress Matilda.
• Difficulty for both noble and peasant populations was a common theme.
• The conflict concluded with Stephen's death and Henry II's ascension.
• Henry II's rule was initially marked by a good relationship with Thomas Becket, but their friendship ended in conflict and led to Becket's death.

Freedom and Serfdom

• Freedom in the 12th century was nuanced, determined by ownership and obligations connected to lords.
• Serfs to gain freedom could escape to another borough and successfully remain there for a year, or else face penalties.

King John and The Magna Carta

• King John (1199-1216) a ruler known for cruelty and greed, imposed heavy taxes.
• John’s refusal of Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury led to his excommunication.
• Excommunication caused a rebellion and a French invasion.
• Signing of the Magna Carta was a result of John's struggle against rebellion and the invasion.
• Four of these laws still hold relevance in the modern legal framework for England.

The Rise of Parliament

• King Henry III (1265) resisted the growing involvement of citizens in guiding the kingdom.
• Simon de Montfort challenged Henry III, leading to the establishment of the first English Parliament, with elected representatives.
• The government paid the expenses of the Parliament that began under Henry III.
• The establishment of Parliament gaining control over taxation (1298) boosted its power and influence.

The Black Death

• The Black Death (1347) was a devastating pandemic that hit Britain.
• Extensive loss of life across Europe occurred (estimated 200 million deaths), with 1.5 million deaths in Britain.
• The initial outbreak spanned three years (1347-1350), with recurrence of the disease over the following 50 years.
• The disease was thought at first to be spread by vermin, but is now known to be an airborne illness.
• The rapid spread of the disease killed most who were infected.
• Overcrowding exacerbated the impact of the plague on the poor, specifically rural communities.
• A lack of understanding of the illness and treatment led to the accumulation of corpses in the streets.
• The plague's death toll heavily reduced the available workforce, triggering shortages and village abandonments.
• This labor shortage provided opportunity for some peasants to demand higher wages, though this was opposed by the powers of the establishment.

The Peasant's Revolt

• The Peasant's Revolt (1381) was an uprising by the poor in England, driven by opposition to poll taxes, wage control, and lords' control over peasants and their properties.

Wars of the Roses

• The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) pitted House of Lancaster against House of York in pursuit of the throne following descent from Edward III.
• The war was concluded with Richard III's death at Bosworth Field (1485), marking the end of the conflicts.
• Henry VII solidified the consolidation of rule by marrying Elizabeth of York, uniting the two houses.

Tudor Period

• The Tudor period began with Henry VII's ascension (1485) and lasted roughly 118 years, with five monarchs.
• Significant transformations occurred in religion, politics, and the monarchy during this time span.
• Henry VII and Elizabeth of York had several children.
• Arthur's death and the marriages of other children within the royal family occurred.

Henry VIII and the Church of England

• Henry VIII became king in 1509.
• Henry VIII's desire for a male heir motivated his break with the Catholic Church and led to the formation of the Church of England.
• Henry VIII married Catherine of Aragon.
• His marital issues, including six marriages, and multiple children, including Edward VI, had a significant impact on the monarchy and English history.

Mary I

• Mary I (Henry VIII's daughter) became queen.
• Edward VI named Lady Jane Grey as his successor, though she reigned for only nine days before being executed.
• Mary I reversed the religious reforms of her father and brother, restoring Catholicism to prominence in England.
• The Marian persecution, the execution and persecution of Protestants, took place during this period.

Elizabeth I

• Elizabeth I (Mary I's sister) became queen (1558).
• Elizabeth I's intelligence and charisma, and her long reign (45 years), had a lasting impact.
• Elizabeth I faced challenges from Catholic threats and attempts to invade England.
• Elizabeth I chose to remain unmarried.
• The end of the Tudor period coincided with Elizabeth I's reign (1603).

Tudor England

• 90% of the population was based in farming and the rural economy.
• The Age of Exploration spurred coal, tin, iron, and lead mining, bolstering the English economy.
• Hunger and poverty were prevalent despite the wealth during Tudor England.
• Legislation focused on beggar relief.
• Criminal justice systems relied on physical punishments, though with capital punishment reserved for severe crimes.
• Elizabeth I's reign brought the Poor Law in 1601 to support the poor.

Tudor Social Life and Entertainment

• Wealthy boys were educated in grammar schools and universities.
• Girls learned domestic skills.
• Public and localized schools also emerged.
• Popular leisure activities included some of the same activities across social classes, such as tennis, football, jousting, gambling, and card games like Primero and Noddy.

James I

• King James VI (Scotland) acceded to become England's James I.
• James was the son of Mary Queen of Scots.
• He refused efforts to appease Catholics and revert the Reformation.
• The Gunpowder Plot of 1605, a planned Catholic assassination attempt, failed, leading to the celebration of Bonfire Night.

Charles I and the English Civil War

• Charles I (James I's son) succeeded to the throne in 1625.
• King Charles's religious and artistic interests clashed with political developments.
• Parliament and King Charles I's conflict over control triggered the English Civil War (1642-1651).
• Castles were used in military conflicts.
• Charles I was defeated by Parliamentary Forces.
• Charles I's execution in 1649 marked a significant turning point in English history.

England's Turbulent Past: From the Stuarts to the Victorians

• The Reign of Charles II (1660-1685): Following the execution of King Charles I, Charles II returned to the throne in 1660, bringing a revival of arts and sciences, including theatre and the discovery of phosphorus. Significant challenges included the Great Plague of 1665 and the Great Fire of London in 1666.
• The Catholic King James II (1685-1688): James II, Charles II's brother, faced strong opposition and was overthrown to be replaced by William of Orange and his wife, Mary. This marked the Glorious Revolution.
• William III and Mary II (1689-1694): Their reign saw a peaceful period, with the Act of Union in 1707 creating Great Britain that unified England, Scotland, and Wales.
• The Stuart Era: Everyday Life for the Common People: The majority of people lived in poverty during this time, and poor laws were created to support the destitute; and many sought better lives in the New World.
• The Georgian Era: Industrial Revolution Begins: The 18th century saw the Industrial Revolution, introducing steam, canals, factories, and large-scale manufacturing, revolutionizing agriculture and industry.
• Impact of Industrialization: The Industrial Revolution fueled growth of factories and cities, driving migration from rural villages to urban centers and expanding the workforce but also bringing issues like poverty, unemployment, and worker exploitation.
• Steam Power and its Impacts: The steam engine revolutionized industries, providing power for coal mining, textile production, and transportation.
• Technological Advancements in Textile Production: Inventions like the water frame, spinning jenny, and power loom enhanced textile production and affordability.
• The Role of Canals: Canal systems were critical for transporting coal and metals, but also presented safety hazards for workers.
• Road Infrastructure: The Turnpike Acts: Turnpike acts promoted faster, more efficient road construction and transport.
• Crime and Punishment in the 18th Century: The increase in crime (highwaymen, thieves) spurred the demand for improved law enforcement.
• The Evolution of Policing: Constables handled crime, but lacked effectiveness. The Bow Street Runners advanced policing.
• The Bloody Code: A harsh, brutal justice system with numerous crimes punishable by death (theft, poaching).
• Public Executions: Public hangings, acting as a spectacle and deterrent, attracted sizeable crowds.
• Transition to the Victorian Era: The Industrial Revolution continued into the 19th century, driving urbanization and social change. The Victorian era saw significant population growth, industrial development, and technological advancement.

Explore the fascinating early history of human presence in Britain, tracing back to the Paleolithic period. This quiz delves into the lives of early settlers, their tools, and the impact of the last ice age on their migration and survival. Test your knowledge on the first Britons, their hunting practices, and the evolution of Homo sapiens.