Pre-Modern Humans and Ancient Civilizations

Pre-Modern Humans

• Modern humans, homo sapiens, evolved approximately 300,000 to 200,000 years ago.
• Archaic humans, such as homo erectus and homo neanderthal, existed before and interbred with homo sapiens.

The Stone Age

• The Paleolithic or Old Stone Age (lasting for half a million years) saw humans as hunters and nomads.
• Humans in the Paleolithic era developed tools, invented fire, and made pottery.
• The Neolithic or New Stone Age began around 10,000 years ago in southwest Asia.
• Humans transitioned from hunter-gatherers to food producers (agriculture), domesticating animals and becoming settlers.

Ancient Civilizations

• River valley civilizations emerged between 4000 and 3000 BCE, originating in the Nile Valley (Africa), Indus Valley (India), and Tigris-Euphrates (Mesopotamia).
• The Yellow River Valley Civilization in China began around 2000 BCE.
• Writing was invented around 3500 BCE in Africa and India, followed by China around 2000 BCE.

River Valley Civilizations

• River valley civilizations flourished due to the availability of water, fertile land, fish, and easy transportation.

Four River Valley Civilizations

• Tigris and Euphrates Civilization (Mesopotamia): Located in the Fertile Crescent, the Middle East, it existed from 8000 BCE. Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Persians, and Phoenicians flourished here.
• Indus Valley Civilization: Located near the Indus River, it existed from 7000 to 600 BCE. Key cities include Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.
• Nile River Valley Civilization: This civilization arose 6000 BCE along the Nile River in Egypt and Sudan.
• Yellow River Valley Civilization: Found in northern China, it began around 5000 BCE.

Ancient Greece

• Greece practiced democracy, where decisions were made through debates and arguments (excluding women and slaves).
• This emphasis on rhetoric and argumentation led to the development of logic.
• Aristotle's syllogism: A premise, a statement, and a conclusion.

Ancient Rome

• Rome transitioned from a republic to an empire under the rule of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE.
• The Roman military dominance led to control over most of Europe, parts of Africa (North Africa), and Asia (the Middle East).
• Romans were known for their administration, law, justice, and tax system.
• Roman engineering achievements included well-built roads, bound books, concrete, and underground sewage systems.
• The empire declined due to internal revolts (Barbarian revolts), external attacks (Huns), and the rise of Christianity.

Roman Contributions to Engineering

• Romans developed arches, vaults, and domes in their architecture.
• Their roads and bridges, constructed using concrete, were considered superior until the 19th century.
• Roman dams, reservoirs, aqueducts, and channels remain in use today.

Roman Contributions to Science

• Ptolemy (2nd Century CE): Developed a geocentric mathematical model to explain the Earth's motion.
• Galen (2nd – 3rd Century): Emphasized anatomy and physiology, introducing human dissection.
• The Romans largely ignored Greek science and used it primarily for entertainment.

Rise of Christianity in the Roman Period

• Christianity emerged as a reform movement of Judaism, emphasizing love for God and neighbors.
• The spread of Christianity relied on Greek rhetoric, arguments, and metaphysics.

Science in Islam

• Islam, founded by Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century in Mecca, rapidly spread throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe.
• The Quran lauded medicine and astronomy as close to God.
• The Islamic world integrated Greek (science, philosophy, geometry), Indian (mathematics), and Arab knowledge.

Science in Ancient Arab*

• Arab scholars excelled in medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and geometry.
• Medicine:
  • Abu Bakr: Differentiated smallpox from measles.
  • Yuhanna ibn Massuwayh: Dissection and allergy.
  • Az Zaharawi: Father of Surgery.
  • Ibn Sina: Differentiated meningitis from other neurological diseases.
• Hospitals: Established and mobile hospitals were in practice.
• Pharmacology: Extensive use of herbs, cotton, sandalwood, camphor, alum, syrups, etc.
• Ibn al-Baytar: Wrote "The Comprehensive Book on Materia Medica and Foodstuffs".
• Terminology: Terms such as alcohol, alkali, drug, and aldehydes have Arabic origins.
• Astronomy and Mathematics:
  • Ibn Firnas: Constructed a planetarium.
  • Muhammad and Hasan Banu Musa: Work in measurements of spheres, trisection of angles, and drawing ellipses.
  • Al Khwarazmi: Contributed to arithmetic (Hindu influence) and algebra.
  • Ahmad al-Nahawandi: Trigonometry.

Chemistry

• Jabir Ibn Haiyan: Experiments in alchemy led to the development of chemistry.

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

• 9th-century Persian mathematician.
• Wrote a book on Calculation with Hindu Numerals.
• 12th Century: Translated into Latin as "Algoritmi de Numero Indorum."
• Al-Khwarizmi on the Indian Number System.
• The word algorithm originates from his name.

Fibonacci Numbers

• These numbers were first described by Indian mathematician Pingala around 200 BCE to enumerate Sanskrit poetry patterns.

Scientific Revolution

• Nicolaus Copernicus (1543): Proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system in "De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelistium" (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies).
• Tycho Brahe (1546 – 1601): Made accurate astronomical observations and employed Johannes Kepler as his assistant.
• Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630): Developed the three laws of planetary motion after obtaining Tycho's data.

Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642)

• Galileo developed his own telescope in 1609, observing Jupiter's moons.
• He defended Copernicus' heliocentric model and faced the Inquisition.
• Contributions of Galileo Galilei:
  • Laws of falling bodies.
  • Observations of celestial objects.
  • Integrated observations and mathematical language.
  • Emphasized the importance of quantifiable observation over sensual observation.

Why the Scientific Revolution Occurred in Europe

• A period of peace and prosperity after centuries of war.
• Interaction with the Arab and Chinese worlds facilitated import of science and technology.
• The fall of Constantinople in 1453 prompted Greek scholars to flee to Italy, bringing Greek books and manuscripts.
• Exploration and colonization led to the availability of goods, raw materials, manpower, and knowledge.
• The rise of Protestantism and the heliocentric model encouraged intellectual freedom.

Science and Technology in China

• Technological innovations: Acupuncture, Abacus, Sundial, Compass, Gunpowder, Slide Calipers, Papermaking, Printing.
• Notable Achievements
  • Great Wall of China (during the 3rd Century BCE).
  • First Seismological Detector (2nd Century AD).
  • Mechanical chain pumps, mechanical puppet theatre, and kites (3rd Century AD).
  • Studied astronomical objects: Supernova SN 185, SN 1006, and SN 1054.
  • Iron plows, horse collar, suspension bridges, parachute, natural gas fuel, dry docks (7th – 13th Century).

Science in Ancient India

• Veda (2000 BCE): Meaning knowledge. Vedas encompass physics, mathematics, astronomy, logic, cognition, and other disciplines.
• Vedangas: Appendices of the Vedas.

Explore the evolution of modern humans and the significant shifts that occurred during the Stone Age. This quiz covers the emergence of ancient river valley civilizations and the advent of writing. Test your knowledge about our prehistoric ancestors and the foundations of human society.