Pre-Modern Humans and Ancient Civilizations

Pre-Modern Humans

• Modern humans, homo sapiens, evolved approximately 300,000 to 200,000 years ago.
• Archaic humans, such as homo erectus and homo neanderthal, existed before and interbred with homo sapiens.

The Stone Age

• The Paleolithic or Old Stone Age (lasting for half a million years) saw humans as hunters and nomads.
• Humans in the Paleolithic era developed tools, invented fire, and made pottery.
• The Neolithic or New Stone Age began around 10,000 years ago in southwest Asia.
• Humans transitioned from hunter-gatherers to food producers (agriculture), domesticating animals and becoming settlers.

Ancient Civilizations

• River valley civilizations emerged between 4000 and 3000 BCE, originating in the Nile Valley (Africa), Indus Valley (India), and Tigris-Euphrates (Mesopotamia).
• The Yellow River Valley Civilization in China began around 2000 BCE.
• Writing was invented around 3500 BCE in Africa and India, followed by China around 2000 BCE.

River Valley Civilizations

• River valley civilizations flourished due to the availability of water, fertile land, fish, and easy transportation.

Four River Valley Civilizations

• Tigris and Euphrates Civilization (Mesopotamia): Located in the Fertile Crescent, the Middle East, it existed from 8000 BCE. Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Persians, and Phoenicians flourished here.
• Indus Valley Civilization: Located near the Indus River, it existed from 7000 to 600 BCE. Key cities include Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.
• Nile River Valley Civilization: This civilization arose 6000 BCE along the Nile River in Egypt and Sudan.
• Yellow River Valley Civilization: Found in northern China, it began around 5000 BCE.

Ancient Greece

• Greece practiced democracy, where decisions were made through debates and arguments (excluding women and slaves).
• This emphasis on rhetoric and argumentation led to the development of logic.
• Aristotle's syllogism: A premise, a statement, and a conclusion.

Ancient Rome

• Rome transitioned from a republic to an empire under the rule of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE.
• The Roman military dominance led to control over most of Europe, parts of Africa (North Africa), and Asia (the Middle East).
• Romans were known for their administration, law, justice, and tax system.
• Roman engineering achievements included well-built roads, bound books, concrete, and underground sewage systems.
• The empire declined due to internal revolts (Barbarian revolts), external attacks (Huns), and the rise of Christianity.

Roman Contributions to Engineering

• Romans developed arches, vaults, and domes in their architecture.
• Their roads and bridges, constructed using concrete, were considered superior until the 19th century.
• Roman dams, reservoirs, aqueducts, and channels remain in use today.

Roman Contributions to Science

• Ptolemy (2nd Century CE): Developed a geocentric mathematical model to explain the Earth's motion.
• Galen (2nd – 3rd Century): Emphasized anatomy and physiology, introducing human dissection.
• The Romans largely ignored Greek science and used it primarily for entertainment.

Rise of Christianity in the Roman Period

• Christianity emerged as a reform movement of Judaism, emphasizing love for God and neighbors.
• The spread of Christianity relied on Greek rhetoric, arguments, and metaphysics.

Science in Islam

• Islam, founded by Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century in Mecca, rapidly spread throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe.
• The Quran lauded medicine and astronomy as close to God.
• The Islamic world integrated Greek (science, philosophy, geometry), Indian (mathematics), and Arab knowledge.

Science in Ancient Arab*

• Arab scholars excelled in medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and geometry.
• Medicine:
  • Abu Bakr: Differentiated smallpox from measles.
  • Yuhanna ibn Massuwayh: Dissection and allergy.
  • Az Zaharawi: Father of Surgery.
  • Ibn Sina: Differentiated meningitis from other neurological diseases.
• Hospitals: Established and mobile hospitals were in practice.
• Pharmacology: Extensive use of herbs, cotton, sandalwood, camphor, alum, syrups, etc.
• Ibn al-Baytar: Wrote "The Comprehensive Book on Materia Medica and Foodstuffs".
• Terminology: Terms such as alcohol, alkali, drug, and aldehydes have Arabic origins.
• Astronomy and Mathematics:
  • Ibn Firnas: Constructed a planetarium.
  • Muhammad and Hasan Banu Musa: Work in measurements of spheres, trisection of angles, and drawing ellipses.
  • Al Khwarazmi: Contributed to arithmetic (Hindu influence) and algebra.
  • Ahmad al-Nahawandi: Trigonometry.

Chemistry

• Jabir Ibn Haiyan: Experiments in alchemy led to the development of chemistry.

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

• 9th-century Persian mathematician.
• Wrote a book on Calculation with Hindu Numerals.
• 12th Century: Translated into Latin as "Algoritmi de Numero Indorum."
• Al-Khwarizmi on the Indian Number System.
• The word algorithm originates from his name.

Fibonacci Numbers

• These numbers were first described by Indian mathematician Pingala around 200 BCE to enumerate Sanskrit poetry patterns.

Scientific Revolution

• Nicolaus Copernicus (1543): Proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system in "De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelistium" (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies).
• Tycho Brahe (1546 – 1601): Made accurate astronomical observations and employed Johannes Kepler as his assistant.
• Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630): Developed the three laws of planetary motion after obtaining Tycho's data.

Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642)

• Galileo developed his own telescope in 1609, observing Jupiter's moons.
• He defended Copernicus' heliocentric model and faced the Inquisition.
• Contributions of Galileo Galilei:
  • Laws of falling bodies.
  • Observations of celestial objects.
  • Integrated observations and mathematical language.
  • Emphasized the importance of quantifiable observation over sensual observation.

Why the Scientific Revolution Occurred in Europe

• A period of peace and prosperity after centuries of war.
• Interaction with the Arab and Chinese worlds facilitated import of science and technology.
• The fall of Constantinople in 1453 prompted Greek scholars to flee to Italy, bringing Greek books and manuscripts.
• Exploration and colonization led to the availability of goods, raw materials, manpower, and knowledge.
• The rise of Protestantism and the heliocentric model encouraged intellectual freedom.

Science and Technology in China

• Technological innovations: Acupuncture, Abacus, Sundial, Compass, Gunpowder, Slide Calipers, Papermaking, Printing.
• Notable Achievements
  • Great Wall of China (during the 3rd Century BCE).
  • First Seismological Detector (2nd Century AD).
  • Mechanical chain pumps, mechanical puppet theatre, and kites (3rd Century AD).
  • Studied astronomical objects: Supernova SN 185, SN 1006, and SN 1054.
  • Iron plows, horse collar, suspension bridges, parachute, natural gas fuel, dry docks (7th – 13th Century).

Science in Ancient India

• Veda (2000 BCE): Meaning knowledge. Vedas encompass physics, mathematics, astronomy, logic, cognition, and other disciplines.
• Vedangas: Appendices of the Vedas.