Pre-Columbian Societies and Civilizations

The migration of early humans from Asia across the Bering Strait land bridge into the Americas during the Ice Age (c. 15,000–30,000 years ago).

Around 7,000 BCE, indigenous peoples in the Americas domesticated crops like maize, squash, and beans. This shift allowed for settled communities and the development of complex civilizations.

The Aztec civilization in Central Mexico, known for its impressive city of Tenochtitlán (modern-day Mexico City), intricate infrastructure, and practice of human sacrifice.

The Inca civilization in Peru, renowned for its expansive empire connected by a network of roads and its unique system of record-keeping using quipus (knotted strings).

The Mississippian culture in North America, characterized by its large earthworks, such as Cahokia near modern-day St. Louis, which had a substantial population.

European exploration of new trade routes to Asia, driven by factors such as the Ottoman Empire's control of Eastern Mediterranean trade and the spirit of the Renaissance.

The Columbian Exchange refers to the transatlantic exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and people between the Old World (Europe, Africa, and Asia) and the New World (the Americas) following Columbus's voyages.

Spanish Conquistadors like Hernán Cortés (who conquered the Aztecs) and Francisco Pizarro (who conquered the Inca) expanded Spanish influence and control in the Americas.

One of the first two political parties in the United States, led by Alexander Hamilton. They favored a strong central government, industrialization, and a loose interpretation of the Constitution.

The other major political party during the early republic, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. They advocated for agrarianism, states' rights, and a strict interpretation of the Constitution.

A 1794 rebellion by farmers in Pennsylvania who protested against Hamilton's tax on whiskey. Washington mobilized federal troops to suppress it, demonstrating the power of the new government.

A 1795 treaty signed after the U.S. victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. It opened the Ohio territory to American settlement.

An undeclared naval conflict between the U.S. and France in the late 1790s, sparked by French agents' demand for bribes from American diplomats.

A series of laws passed by the Federalist Party in 1798 that restricted free speech and targeted immigrants. They were controversial, and ultimately led to the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.

A key development in American transportation in the early 19th century, including the building of roads, canals, and railroads, as well as steamboats.

The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793 revolutionized cotton production, increasing its profitability and unfortunately strengthening the institution of slavery.

A system of labor in early textile mills that used young women, often with limited opportunities, offering wages, housing, and strict discipline.

The increase in people moving to America, particularly from Ireland and Germany, during the early 19th century. It led to growing economic opportunities, but also to discrimination and nativism.

A system in Spanish colonies where settlers were granted land and the right to extract labor from indigenous populations in exchange for converting them to Christianity.

A Spanish priest who criticized the Encomienda System and advocated for humane treatment of Native Americans.

The first permanent English settlement in North America, founded in 1607. It faced hardships like famine and disease in its early years.

A period of severe famine and hardship in Jamestown during 1609-1610, due to poor planning and lack of food.

A type of labor contract where a worker agreed to work for a set period (usually 4-7 years) in exchange for passage to the colonies and land after their service was complete.

Introduced tobacco cultivation in Jamestown in 1612, transforming the colony's economy and leading to a massive demand for labor.

A group of English settlers who arrived in Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1620, seeking religious freedom and practicing a strict form of Puritanism.

A group of English Protestants who sought to reform the Church of England and establish a society based on religious purity and strict moral codes.

A war fought in 1637 between English colonists and the Pequot tribe in New England, resulting in the near-annihilation of the Pequot.

A system in Chesapeake colonies where settlers received land grants (50 acres per person brought to the colony) to encourage westward expansion.

An uprising in 1676 by poor farmers and former indentured servants against Governor William Berkeley, protesting Native American attacks and corruption.

A series of religious revivals that swept through the British colonies in the 1730s-1740s, emphasizing emotional experiences of faith and challenging established church authority.

A powerful preacher who played a key role in the Great Awakening, attracting large crowds with his impassioned sermons

Major figures of the Enlightenment movement, advocating for natural rights and social contract theory.

A social contract theory that states that government derives its legitimacy from the consent of the governed, who agree to give up some individual rights in exchange for protection and order.

A major slave uprising in South Carolina in 1739, where enslaved people sought to escape to Spanish Florida. Though ultimately suppressed, it led to harsher slave laws.

A system of economic exchange where goods, slaves, and raw materials were traded between Europe, the Americas, and Africa. It involved a complex network of trade routes and markets.

This act imposed a tax on sugar imported from the West Indies, aimed at raising revenue for Britain but angered colonists who viewed it as unfair.

This act levied a tax on all printed materials in the colonies, including newspapers, legal documents, and playing cards, sparking protests and boycotts.

A group of colonists who organized protests and boycotts against British policies, led by Samuel Adams, advocating for colonial rights and liberties.

A group of activists seeking to unite the colonies in opposition to British taxation policies, organizing a meeting in 1765 to discuss grievances.

A violent incident in 1770 in which British soldiers fired into a crowd of colonists, killing five, which further escalated anti-British sentiment.

This act granted a British company a monopoly on the tea trade in the colonies, leading to a protest where colonists disguised as Mohawk Indians dumped tea into Boston Harbor.

A series of punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in response to the Boston Tea Party, known as the Intolerable Acts by colonists.

A meeting of delegates from 12 colonies in 1774 to discuss the growing tension with Britain. They sought to preserve colonial rights and restore their liberties.

The first open clash between British troops and colonial militias in April 1775, marking the beginning of the American Revolution.

A meeting of representatives from the 13 colonies in 1775 that created the Continental Army and appointed George Washington as its commander, taking steps toward organized resistance.

A document written by Thomas Paine that argued for American independence by criticizing monarchy and advocating for republican government, galvanizing public support.

A document written by Thomas Jefferson, declaring American independence from Britain and outlining the natural rights of life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness.

A key turning point in the Revolutionary War, where American forces under General Horatio Gates defeated British General John Burgoyne, convincing France to ally with the colonies.