Post War America and the GI Bill

• The postwar era saw the United States transition from isolationism to a global superpower.
• Americans desired a return to normalcy and economic prosperity after World War II.
• The Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union tempered postwar optimism during Truman's presidency.

Postwar America

• Returning soldiers faced challenges finding jobs and housing.
• Wartime savings and pent-up consumer demand fueled economic growth.
• By the 1950s, the U.S. achieved the highest standard of living in history.

GI Bill

• The Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 supported veterans' transition to a peacetime economy.
• It enabled over half of returning veterans to pursue education at government expense, boosting higher education.
• Veterans received low-interest loans for homes, farms, and businesses.
• The GI Bill stimulated economic expansion through a better-educated workforce and new construction.

Baby Boom

• A surge in marriages and births from 1945-1960 added 50 million to the U.S. population.
• The baby boom significantly impacted social institutions and economic life.
• Initially, it focused women on homemaking, but more women continued to enter the workforce, with one-third of married women working by 1960.

Suburban Growth

• High housing demand led to a construction boom.
• William J. Levitt pioneered mass-produced, affordable suburban homes with Levittown.
• Government-insured, tax-deductible mortgages made suburban living accessible to middle-class families.
• Suburbanization led to urban decline and increased racial division in older cities.

Rise of the Sunbelt

• Millions of Americans migrated to the Sunbelt for its climate, lower taxes, and defense industry jobs.
• Cold War military spending shifted industry, population, and political influence from the Northeast and Midwest to the South and West.

Postwar Politics

• Harry S. Truman assumed the presidency after Roosevelt's death in April 1945.
• Truman aimed to continue the New Deal tradition.

Economic Program and Civil Rights

• Truman's proposals faced conservative opposition in Congress.

Employment Act of 1946

• Truman advocated for progressive measures, including national health insurance and full employment.
• The Employment Act of 1946 established the Council of Economic Advisers.
• A Republican and conservative Southern Democrat coalition hindered most of Truman's domestic program.

Inflation and Strikes

• Truman sought to extend wartime price controls to curb inflation.
• Congress relaxed controls, causing a 25 percent inflation rate.
• Over 4.5 million workers went on strike in 1946, prompting Truman to seize mines and use soldiers to maintain operations.

Civil Rights

• Truman challenged racial discrimination by establishing the Committee on Civil Rights in 1946.
• He strengthened the Justice Department's civil rights division.
• Truman ended racial discrimination in the federal government, including the armed forces, in 1948.
• Southern Democrats blocked Truman's proposed Fair Employment Practices Commission.

Republican Control of the Eightieth Congress

• Voters elected Republican majorities in both houses of Congress in 1946 due to unhappiness with inflation and strikes.
• Truman vetoed two Republican tax cuts for upper-income Americans.

Twenty-second Amendment (1951)

• Congress limited presidents to a maximum of two full terms in office.
• The 22nd Amendment was ratified in 1951.

Taft-Hartley Act (1947)

• Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act to curb union power.
• Truman vetoed the measure, but Congress overrode the veto.
• Provisions included outlawing the closed shop, permitting "right to work" laws, outlawing secondary boycotts, and allowing the president to invoke an 80-day cooling-off period before strikes endangering national safety.

The Election of 1948

• Truman's popularity was low at the campaign's start.
• Liberal and conservative Democratic factions formed third parties.
• The Progressive party nominated Henry Wallace, opposing Truman's foreign policy.
• Southern Democrats formed the States' Rights party (Dixiecrats), nominating Strom Thurmond in response to Truman's civil rights stance.
• Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey.
• Truman attacked the "do-nothing" Republican Eightieth Congress.
• Truman won a decisive victory, reuniting Roosevelt's New Deal coalition.

The Fair Deal

• Truman launched the Fair Deal reform program in 1949.
• He advocated for national health care insurance, federal aid to education, civil rights legislation, and public housing funds.
• Congressional conservatives blocked most reforms, except an increase in the minimum wage and expanded Social Security coverage.
• The Cold War and political conflicts with Congress hindered the Fair Deal.
• Truman was praised for maintaining New Deal reforms and promoting civil rights.

Origins of the Cold War

• The Cold War dominated international relations from the late 1940s to 1991.
• It was characterized by rivalry between the Communist Soviet Union and the United States.
• Superpower competition occurred through diplomacy.
• Historians debate the causes and the necessity of Truman's policies.

U.S. -Soviet Relations to 1945

• The wartime alliance against the Axis powers was a temporary pause in poor relations.
• Americans viewed the Soviets as a threat since the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, leading to the Red Scare of 1919.
• The U.S. refused to recognize the Soviet Union until 1933.
• Roosevelt's advisers distrusted Stalin and the Communists.
• The Nonaggression Pact of 1939 between Stalin and Hitler fueled distrust.

Allies in World War II

• Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union and Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor led to a U.S.-Soviet alliance.
• Stalin criticized the delay in opening a second front in France.
• Postwar conflicts over Central and Eastern Europe were evident at Yalta and Potsdam.
• Truman became suspicious of the Soviets.

Postwar Cooperation and the U.N.

• The founding of the United Nations in 1945 offered hope.
• The General Assembly provided representation for all member nations.
• The Security Council held primary responsibility for international security.
• The United States, Great Britain, France, China, and the Soviet Union had permanent seats and veto power on the U.N. Security Council.
• The Soviets rejected the Baruch Plan for regulating nuclear energy.

The United States also offered the Soviets participation in the World bank

• The Soviets declined, viewing the bank as capitalist.
• The Soviets joined the Nuremberg trials of Nazi leaders.

Satellite States in Eastern Europe

• Hostility grew as Soviet forces occupied Central and Eastern Europe.
• Communist dictators came to power in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia from 1946-1948.
• The Soviets claimed these satellite states as buffer zones against Western invasion.
• The U.S. and Britain viewed Soviet actions as violations of self-determination and democracy.

Occupation Zones in Germany

• Germany and Austria were divided into Soviet, French, British, and U.S. zones of occupation.
• The Soviet zone evolved into the German Democratic Republic.
• Conflicts arose over national security and economic needs.
• The Soviets desired a weak Germany and war reparations.
• The US and Britain wanted economic recovery in germany
• The Soviets tightened control over East Germany and attempted to force Western powers out of Berlin.

Iron Curtain

• Truman adopted a tougher stance toward the Soviets in January 1946.
• Winston Churchill declared an "iron curtain" had descended across Europe in March 1946.
• The term "iron curtain" symbolized the Soviet satellite states of Eastern Europe.
• Churchill's speech called for a Western alliance to halt communism.

Containment in Europe

• In 1947, Truman adopted containment, formulated by George Marshall, Dean Acheson, and George F. Kennan.
• Kennan advocated for a "long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment" to prompt the Soviets to abandon world domination ideology.
• Walter Lippmann criticized containment, arguing that some areas were more vital than others.
• American leaders adhered to the lesson of Munich and opposed Communist aggression.

The Truman Doctrine

• Truman implemented containment in response to threats in Greece and Turkey.
• He requested $400 million in aid for Greece and Turkey against "totalitarian" regimes in March 1947.
• The Truman Doctrine gained bipartisan support.

The Marshall Plan

• Europe was in ruins after the war, facing food shortages and debt.
• The Truman administration feared Communist parties gaining power in Western democracies.
• George Marshall proposed U.S. economic aid to revive European economies and strengthen democratic governments in June 1947.
• In 1948, $12 billion in aid was approved for Western Europe over four years.
• The Soviet Union rejected the Marshall Plan, fearing dependence on the United States.

Effects

• The Marshall Plan facilitated Western Europe's self-sustaining growth by the 1950s and reduced the threat of Communist success.
• It boosted U.S. prosperity through increased exports.
• It deepened the divide between the Communist East and non-Communist West.

The Berlin Airlift

• The Soviets blockaded land access to Berlin in June 1948.
• Truman rejected withdrawal from Berlin and ordered a U.S. airlift to supply the city.
• Truman sent bombers to England.
• Stalin did not challenge the airlift.
• By May 1949, the Soviets reopened highways to Berlin.
• The blockade led to the creation of West Germany and East Germany.

NATO and National Security

• The United States joined a military defense pact to protect Western Europe in 1949.
• Ten European nations, the United States, and Canada formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
• General Eisenhower was selected as NATO's first Supreme Commander.
• The containment policy resulted in military buildup and commitments abroad.
• The Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955.

National Security Act (1947)

• The United States modernized its military in 1947.
• It created the Department of Defense, the National Security Council (NSC), and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).
• The Selective Service System and peacetime draft were instituted in 1948.

Atomic Weapons

• The United States and the Soviet Union engaged in an arms race.
• From 1945-1949, the United States was the sole atomic power.
• The Soviets tested their first atomic bomb in 1949.
• Truman approved the development of the hydrogen bomb, which was added to the U.S. arsenal in 1952.
• NSC-68 recommended increased defense spending, alliances with non-Communist countries, and convincing the public of the need for an arms buildup.

Evaluating U.S. Policy

• Critics argued that the Truman administration intensified Russian fears and initiated an arms race.
• NATO checked Soviet expansion in Europe and maintained peace until 1991.

Cold War in Asia

• Containment was less successful in Asia.
• Former colonies became new nations with different cultures and political traditions.
• Japan became closely tied to the U.S. defense system.

Japan

• Japan was under U.S. control.
• General Douglas MacArthur oversaw Japan's reconstruction.
• A new constitution in 1947 established a parliamentary democracy.
• It retained the emperor as head of state but renounced war.
• Japan depended on U.S. military protection.

U.S.-Japanese Security Treaties

• In 1951, Japan surrendered claims to Korea and Pacific islands, and the United States ended its occupation.
• U.S. troops remained in Japan for protection against external enemies.
• Japan became a strong ally.

The Philippines and the Pacific

• The Philippines became independent on July 4, 1946.
• The United States retained naval and air bases in the Philippines.

China

• Chiang Kai-shek led the Nationalist government in China.
• The United States provided military aid to Chiang during World War II to resist Japanese conquest.
• A civil war between the Nationalists and the Communists led by Mao Zedong resumed after the war.
• The Communists gained support due to inflation and corruption in the Nationalist government.

U.S. Policy

• George Marshall attempted to negotiate an end to the Chinese civil war in 1946, but failed.
• Truman was unsure of how to respond to the conflict.
• Congress approved $400 million in aid to the Nationalist government in 1948.

Two Chinas

• By 1949, Communists controlled mainland China.
• Chiang and the Nationalists retreated to Taiwan.
• The United States supported Chiang and refused to recognize Mao Zedong's regime until 1979.
• Republicans blamed Democrats for the "loss of China."
• Stalin and Mao signed a Sino-Soviet pact in 1950.

The Korean War

• Korea was divided along the 38th parallel after World War II.
• The Soviets occupied the North, and the U.S. occupied the South.
• Kim II Sung led North Korea, and Syngman Rhee led South Korea.

Invasion

• North Korea invaded South Korea on June 25, 1950.
• Truman applied containment to the crisis.
• The U.N. Security Council authorized a U.N. force to defend South Korea.
• General Douglas MacArthur commanded the U.N. expedition.
• Congress supported the U.S. intervention but did not declare war, calling it a "police action."

Counterattack

• U.N. forces were initially pushed back to the tip of the peninsula.
• MacArthur launched an amphibious assault at Inchon.
• U.N. forces advanced into North Korea.
• Chinese troops entered Korea in November 1950, overwhelming U.N. forces.

Truman Versus MacArthur

• MacArthur stabilized the fighting near the 38th parallel.
• He advocated expanding the war, including bombing China.
• Truman cautioned MacArthur about criticizing U.S. policy.
• Truman recalled MacArthur for insubordination in April 1951.
• MacArthur returned home as a hero.
• Critics accused Truman and the Democrats of appeasement.

Armistice

• The war stalemated near the 38th parallel.
• Peace talks began in July 1951 and an armistice was signed in 1953.
• Over 2.5 million people died, including 54,000 Americans.

Political Consequences

• Truman's containment policy in Korea prevented a world war.
• The Truman administration dramatically expanded the military and stationed more troops overseas.
• Republicans criticized Truman and the Democrats as "soft on communism."

The Second Red Scare

• A second Red Scare emerged after World War II.
• The Truman administration's view of a Communist conspiracy fueled fears of domestic infiltration.

Security and Civil Rights

• The Truman administration created a Loyalty Review Board in 1947.
• Thousands of officials resigned or lost their jobs during the probe.

Prosecutions Under the Smith Act

• Leaders of the American Communist party were jailed for advocating government overthrow.
• The Supreme Court upheld the Smith Act's constitutionality in Dennis et al. v. United States (1951).

McCarran Internal Security Act (1950)

• Congress passed the McCarran Internal Security Act over Truman's veto.
• It restricted employment and travel of those joining Communist-front organizations and authorized detention camps for subversives.

Un-American Activities

• The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) sought out Communists.
• The committee investigated government officials and organizations.
• Those who refused to testify were tried for contempt of Congress.
• Some were blacklisted.

Cultural Impact

• The Second Red Scare limited freedom of expression.
• Playwrights and films were attacked as anti-American.
• Loyalty oaths were required of writers and teachers.
• The ACLU defended free expression of unpopular political views.

Espionage Cases

• Espionage cases in Great Britain, Canada, and the United States fueled fears.

Hiss Case

• Whittaker Chambers accused Alger Hiss of being a Communist in 1948.
• Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950.

Rosenberg Case

• Klaus Fuchs admitted giving A-bomb secrets to the Russians.
• Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were found guilty of treason and executed in 1953.

The Rise of Joseph McCarthy

• Joseph McCarthy accused 205 Communists of working for the State Department in 1950.
• His power grew from anticommunist fears.

McCarthy's Tactics

• McCarthy made unsupported accusations about Communists in government.
• He attacked the wealthy and privileged.

Army-McCarthy Hearings

• McCarthy's tactics were exposed on television in 1954.
• The Senate censured McCarthy in December.
• McCarthyism faded, and he died a broken man.

Truman in Retirement

• Truman decided not to run for reelection due to the Korean War stalemate, loss of China, and scandals.
• He returned to private life in Missouri.
• Critics later respected his decisions and character.

The Eisenhower Years, 1952-1960

• The 1950s are viewed as a decade of prosperity.
• The decade had the Korean War and McCarthyism.
• The civil rights movement emerged.
• The Cold War and nuclear threat loomed in the background.

Eisenhower Takes Command

• Dwight Eisenhower personified the 1950s.

The Election of 1952

• Americans wanted relief from the Korean War.
• Republicans nominated Eisenhower, who chose Richard Nixon as his running mate.
• Democrats selected Adlai Stevenson.

Campaign Highlights

• Eisenhower pledged to go to Korea and end the war.
• The Eisenhower-Nixon ticket won the election.

Domestic Policies

• Eisenhower delegated authority.

Modern Republicanism

• Eisenhower balanced the budget.
• He accepted and extended New Deal programs.
• He created the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW).
• Eisenhower opposed federal health care insurance.
• His balanced approach was called "modern Republicanism."

Interstate Highway System

• The Highway Act of 1956 authorized the construction of interstate highways.
• It improved national defense and created jobs.
• It hurt railroads and the environment.

Prosperity

• The country enjoyed a steady growth rate during Eisenhower's years in office, with inflation averaging 1.5 percent.
• Between 1945 and 1960, per-capita disposable income more than tripled, resulting in the highest standards of living in the world.

The Election of 1956

• Eisenhower was renominated despite health concerns.
• Eisenhower won by greater margin than in 1952.

Eisenhower and the Cold War

• Eisenhower focused on foreign policy.
• John Foster Dulles shaped U.S. foreign policy as Secretary of State.

Dulles' Diplomacy

• Dulles advocated a "new look" challenging the Soviet Union and China.
• He proposed "liberating captive nations" and encouraging Taiwan against Communist China.
• Brinkmanship involved pushing Communist powers to the brink of war, relying on American nuclear superiority.

Massive Retaliation

• Dulles advocated reliance on nuclear weapons and air power.
• The United States developed the hydrogen bomb in 1953.
• The Soviets developed their own hydrogen bomb.
• Massive retaliation deterred all-out war but could not prevent small wars.

Unrest in the Third World

• Decolonization occurred after World War II.
• Dozens of Asian and African colonies gained independence.
• Third World countries often lacked stable institutions and became pawns in the Cold War.

Covert Action

• Eisenhower used covert action.
• The CIA overthrew governments in Iran (1953) and Guatemala (1954).
• U.S. supported dictators.
• CIA planned assassinations.

Asia

• Eisenhower faced Cold War challenges in East Asia and Southeast Asia.

Korean Armistice

• Eisenhower went to Korea in 1953.
• Diplomacy, the threat of nuclear war, and Stalin's death led to an armistice in July 1953.
• Korea remained divided near the 38th parallel.

Fall of Indochina

• The French tried to retake Indochina after World War II.
• Vietnamese and Cambodians resisted.
• The anticolonial war became part of the Cold War.
• The United States aided the French, while China and the Soviet Union aided the Viet Minh.
• The French army was defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954.
• France gave up Indochina, which was divided into Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam at the Geneva Conference of 1954.

Division of Vietnam

• Vietnam was divided at the 17th parallel at the Geneva Conference.
• Ho Chi Minh established a Communist dictatorship in North Vietnam.
• Ngo Dinh Diem led the government in South Vietnam.
• General elections were never held.
• From 1955 to 1961, the United States provided aid to South Vietnam to build an anticommunist state.
• Eisenhower referred to the domino theory.

SEATO

• The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was meant to prevent South Vietnam Cambodia, and Laos from falling to communism
• Eight nations signed the pact in 1954

The Middle East

• The United States tried to balance ties with Arab states and support Israel.

Suez Crisis

• Gamal Nasser of Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal in July 1956.
• Britain, France, and Israel attacked Egypt.
• Eisenhower condemned the invasion.

Eisenhower Doctrine

• The United States replaced Britain and France in the Middle East and faced Soviet influence.
• The Eisenhower Doctrine pledged aid to Middle Eastern countries threatened by communism in 1957.
• Eisenhower sent marines to Lebanon in 1958.

OPEC and Oil

• Arab nations formed the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1960.
• Oil was a critical foreign policy issue.

U.S.-Soviet Relations

• Relations fluctuated between calm and tension.

Spirit of Geneva

• Eisenhower called for a slowdown in the arms race.
• The Soviets withdrew troops from Austria.
• Eisenhower and Bulganin met in Geneva in 1955.
• Eisenhower proposed an "open skies" policy.
• Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin and supported "peaceful coexistence."