Post-Classic Mexico and the Toltecs

Post-Classic Mexico

• The Classic period's centralized power, exemplified by Teotihuacan, fragmented in areas north of the Maya region.
• Knowledge of the Valley of Mexico (AD 650-900) is limited, but aggressive city-states like Cholula, Xochicalco, and El Tajín competed but failed to unite.
• The Post-Classic era (AD 900-early 16th century) saw increased long-distance trade and economic integration in Mesoamerica.
• Paquimé/ Casas Grandes in northwest Mexico (linking to the US Southwest) is an example of a long-distance trade center showcasing Mesoamerican cultural elements.
• Technological innovation slowed in the Post-Classic, but military prowess and human sacrifice expanded.
• Military capabilities increased, solidifying warriors' prestige, and human sacrifice became prevalent to prevent cosmic disasters.
• More written records from this period offer greater clarity on individuals and events, although accounts are often mythical and inconsistent.

The Toltecs

• Teotihuacan, a northeastern valley city, acted as a buffer between "civilized" Mexico and northern nomadic groups (Chichimecs).
• The Toltecs, led by Mixcoatl, migrated to the central valley of Mexico in the 10th century.
• Mixcoatl was assassinated, and his son, Topiltzin-Quetzalcoatl, became a cultural figure, known for opposing human sacrifice and being associated with the god Quetzalcoatl.
• Topiltzin-Quetzalcoatl founded Tula (a significant urban center) in AD 968, situated near the obsidian deposits.
• The Toltecs absorbed northern groups, contributing to the urban Mesoamerican characteristics of the region.
• Although their dominance lasted two centuries, the Toltec influence persisted for five hundred years.
• Tula featured impressive architecture, palaces, and elaborate decorations showcasing exotic birds, gold, jewels, and shells.
• Religious conflicts emerged, with factions supporting Tezcatlipoca (associated with obsidian and fate) opposing Quetzalcoatl during Topiltzin's reign.
• Topiltzin-Quetzalcoatl is linked to the legend of leaving cross-like signs and leaving Tula in exile
• Topiltzin's legacy was tied to the belief of his potential return.

The Zapotecs and Mixtecs

• Zapotecs remained influential in Oaxaca, maintaining centers like Zaachila and Mitla, demonstrating sophisticated urban design with intricate geometric stonework.
• Mixtec culture thrived in the mountainous region west/north of Zapotecs; their impressive artistic skill shows up in sophisticated art, adorned with details and colors.
• Mixtecs crafted intricate picture codices, which provide historical accounts.
• Mixtecs embraced metallurgy, especially gold and silver, after around AD 1000.
• Mixtecs absorbed influence from the neighboring Toltecs.
• Mixtecs and Zapotecs played a key role in obsidian trade, creating and exchanging tools.

The Post-Classic Maya

• Yucatán Peninsula witnessed the rise of a distinctive Maya culture around AD 900.
• The peninsula's limestone topography, cenotes, and thin soil influenced agricultural practices in the area.
• Arrival of "foreigners" (including possibly Toltec refugees) significantly shaped the culture of the Yucatec Maya.
• Chichen Itza became a powerful center, embracing both earlier Maya traditions and new influences from elsewhere in Mesoamerica (including possibly Topiltzin-Quetzalcoatl).
• Political and cultural change and decentralization shifted power.
• Environmental factors like drought and warfare also influenced the region.