Stalin

Stalin's Rise to Power

• Stalin consolidated power after Lenin's death through strategic alliances and manipulation of party factions.
• He allied with Zinoviev and Kamenev to eliminate Trotsky, who was expelled by 1929.
• Criticism from Bukharin on collectivisation led to his removal, solidifying Stalin's control over the Communist Party.
• By 1929, Stalin had defeated opposition and transformed into a dictator, gaining mastery over the Communist state.

Ideology: Totalitarianism and Marxism-Leninism-Stalinism

• Stalin enhanced Marxism-Leninism into a totalitarian ideology, emphasizing a strong superstructure controlled by one leader.
• Key components included a command economy and strict propaganda to suppress dissent.
• Historians debate whether Stalin adapted ideology for practical solutions or for personal ambition, leading to widespread repression.

Central Government Control

• Stalin maintained tight control of government organs, requiring centralized authority for policies like collectivisation and the Five-Year Plans.
• 1936 constitutional changes aimed to project a democratic façade while ensuring Communist Party dominance.

Methods of Control

• Secret Police (NKVD): Established in 1934 to enforce terror, implement purges, and oversee Gulags where millions were imprisoned.
• Army's Role: The Red Army was both a tool for Stalin's policies and faced purges that decimated its leadership, leaving it vulnerable before WWII.

Censorship and Propaganda

• Stalin intensified censorship; all artistic works were mandated to align with "socialist realism."
• Writers faced severe consequences for dissent; many were arrested or exiled.
• Propaganda glorified Stalin and the Soviet Union, portraying him as a man of the people and promoting achievements of the Five-Year Plans.

The Great Purge/Great Terror (1936-1938)

• Characterized by mass arrests and executions, often justified as responses to alleged plots against the state.
• Key show trials involved high-ranking Communists accused of plotting against Stalin, leading to widespread purges across various government sectors.
• Around 750,000 executions were estimated during this period of terror.

Economic Changes: Five-Year Plans

• Stalin initiated Five-Year Plans starting in 1928 to industrialize the Soviet Union rapidly.
• The First Plan (1928-1932) set ambitious production targets leading to falsified success reports, yet significant increases were achieved in coal, iron, and electricity.
• Subsequent Plans focused on heavy industry, with mixed results due to lack of coordination and real planning, despite significant industrial outputs.

Impact of Five-Year Plans

• By 1940, coal production increased fivefold, with substantial rises in steel and electricity generation, equipping the USSR for military needs.
• Living conditions worsened as Stalin prioritized industrial growth over consumer welfare and agricultural development, leading to an unbalanced economy.
• The Fourth Plan (1946-1950) prioritized heavy industry after WWII, struggling with low agricultural outputs and maintaining harsh working conditions post-war.### Fourth Plan Achievements
• Significant industrial growth in the USSR, with capacity only second to the USA by 1950.
• Industrial fabric strengthened despite central planning failures and a decline in worker welfare.
• Devaluation of the rouble by 90% in 1947 diminished savings and purchasing power.
• Shortages of consumer goods persisted, severely impacting living conditions.
• Key production figures illustrate mixed results from 1940 to 1950 with notable increases in coal and electricity.

Collectivisation Objectives

• Stalin aimed to finance industrialisation by mobilising agricultural resources through collectivisation.
• Collective and State Farms were created; peasants pooled land and resources for central management, contrary to claims of voluntary participation.
• Stalin targeted affluent peasants (Kulaks) for blame, leading to ‘De-Kulakisation’ and widespread repression.

Impact of Collectivisation

• Massive social upheaval as traditional farming practices were disrupted; starvation rampant.
• Famine mainly affected rural areas, especially Ukraine and Kazakhstan; 10-15 million peasants perished during the 1930s.
• Agricultural productivity barely improved by the late 1930s, reflecting long-term damage.
• Stalin’s policies inadvertently forced many peasants to migrate to urban factories, supporting industrialisation efforts.

Changes in Stalin's Society

• Hierarchical structures emerged in Communist Party, echoing tsarist regimes.
• Political repression, censorship, and purges created a climate of fear and stunted individual freedoms.

Education Reforms

• Primary education became compulsory and enrollment surged to 18 million by 1930.
• Curriculum shifted from basic literacy to revolutionary ideologies, with adult literacy campaigns introduced.
• Increased opportunities for women in higher education, significantly raising female engineering student statistics.

Housing Conditions

• Urban overcrowding resulted in shared living quarters; average living space decreased significantly.
• Post-WWII homelessness affected 25 million people; housing issues persisted through Stalin's tenure, leaving a legacy for Khrushchev.

Food and Famine Strategies

• Food production fluctuations with notable famines in 1921 and 1932-34.
• Collectivisation efforts directly correlated to hardships faced by the rural population.
• U.S.S.R’s agricultural output and food consumption remained detrimental through Stalin's leadership.

Worker Conditions

• Harsh conditions for factory workers with extended hours and declining wages during the First Five-Year Plan.
• Safety concerns in factories worsened, compounded by fears of purges against workers labeled anti-revolutionary.

Personal Freedoms under Stalin

• The NKVD enforced strict controls to eliminate opposition; 40 million imprisoned in Gulags during 1934-1943.
• Censorship limited freedom of expression; writers faced severe consequences for non-conformity.
• Religion faced persecution, with a drastic decline in functioning churches by 1938.

Minorities Before World War Two

• Stalin implemented a constitution allowing theoretical representation for national minorities, but repression dominated political life.
• Ukraine experienced devastating oppression under collectivisation, with death tolls rising significantly due to famine and purges.

Minorities After World War Two

• Collaboration accusations led to mass deportations of minority populations to Central Asia.
• Strategic importance shaped Soviet control over Eastern Europe; the USSR exerted influence and power strongly post-war.
• Countries like Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria fell under communist control through intimidation, purges, and manipulation of elections.### Hungary
• Hungary was not a key strategic focus for the Soviets post-World War II; they prioritized reparations over direct control.
• Stalin intended to create a buffer zone in Central Europe between the Soviet influence and the West.
• Up to 1947, Hungary maintained a semblance of freedom, including a free press and parliamentary debates.
• The Communists controlled the Ministry of the Interior, allowing them to maintain police power throughout this period.
• By 1948, Hungary was integrated fully into the Eastern Bloc, losing its independence.

Czechoslovakia

• Similar to Hungary, Czechoslovakia had no significant strategic value for the Soviet Union, allowing a degree of independence.
• In the 1946 elections, the Communist Party emerged as the largest faction, leading a coalition government without coercion.
• The shift occurred in 1948 with the promise of U.S. Marshall Aid, prompting the Soviets to tighten their control.
• Czechoslovakia was the last Eastern Bloc nation to fall under Soviet control in 1948.

Causes of World War Two

• Long-term causes of the war trace back to Hitler's rise in 1933 and subsequent German-Polish non-aggression treaties.
• The Soviet Union reacted by terminating its treaties with Poland and Baltic states in 1934, signaling readiness for conflict if provoked.
• Admission to the League of Nations in 1934 while Germany and Japan withdrew heightened tensions.
• Stalin provided limited support in the Spanish Civil War to avoid antagonizing Germany, while Germany formed an anti-communist alliance.
• By 1938, Stalin recognized the threat posed by Germany, particularly after the Munich Conference excluded Soviet support.
• The Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact of August 1939 divided Eastern European territories between Germany and the Soviet Union.

Short-term Causes

• Germany's invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, marked the beginning of World War II.
• During the initial phase of the war, Soviet neutrality was maintained under the Nazi-Soviet Pact, but preemptive defense actions were taken.
• The Baltic States were coerced to allow Soviet troop stations, while Finland rejected similar demands, leading to the Winter War (1939-1940).
• Germany's success in the west convinced Stalin of an impending attack, resulting in preparations for Operation Barbarossa, which commenced on June 22, 1941.

Consequences of the Second World War

Social Effects

• The death toll for the Soviet Union exceeded 27 million, with a significant portion being civilians.
• The war caused severe labor shortages which hindered post-war recovery.
• Deserters faced execution; 13,000 were shot for this offense.
• The Soviet army's conduct during the war included significant instances of sexual violence, particularly during the counter-offensive into Germany.

Economic Effects

• The post-war economy faced substantial damage to infrastructure and industrial facilities.
• Factories were reconverted and relocated, affecting production efficiency.
• The fourth Five-Year Plan (1946-1950) aimed to restore pre-war economic conditions, with consumer goods neglected.
• Goals were achieved faster than expected due to available labor from returned POWs and international aid.
• Economic weaknesses persisted, including failures in agricultural policy and misallocated resources.

Political Effects

• Stalin maintained power without significant changes to the government structure during the war.
• He controlled military decisions via the State Defence Committee, relying on military advisers for strategic planning.
• Membership in the Communist Party grew during the war, reflecting military enlistees and wartime patriotism.
• The NKVD expanded its role, purging perceived dissidents and managing post-conflict deportations of certain ethnic groups.