Political Theory: Plato, Aristotle, Governance

Polisci Semester 2

Lecture 1: Plato & Aristotle

• Political theory examines governance, power, justice, and legitimacy
• It addresses both normative questions (how systems should function) and empirical questions (how systems actually function).
• Political theorists study historical texts and modern political thought, engaging with figures such as Plato, Aristotle, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Marx, and contemporary theorists
• Question of rulership is central to political philosophy.

Authority and Governance

• Democracy: The state belongs to citizens; rule by the people prevents tyranny.
• Gerontocracy: Wisdom and experience make older rulers better in governance.
• Monarchy: Rule by sovereign provides stability and tradition.
• Republicanism: Government is based on merit, popular selection, and political accountability.
• Ideological Rule: Rule by a group unified with common ideology.
• Technocracy: Governance is achieved through AI and bureaucracy, emphasizing efficiency
• Epistemocracy: Rule by those with superior knowledge and wisdom.
• Plato advocated for philosopher-kings
• Aristotle advocated for a mixed constitution with democratic elements

Plato on Expert Rule (Epistemocracy)

• Athenian democracy (5th-4th century BCE) was a direct democracy
• Ekklēsia: Open to all free male citizens (~30,000); decisions made by majority vote.
• Boulē (council of 500): Chosen by lot (sortition), set the agenda for the assembly.
• Magistrates and jurors: Selected randomly to prevent corruption.
• Funded largely by imperial tributes from the Delian League (Athens’ empire)
• Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) weakened Athenian democracy, leading to oligarchic coups.
• Socrates was executed (399 BCE) after being accused of corrupting the youth and impiety.

Plato's Critique of Democracy

• Democracy leads to instability
• Self-rule causes citizens to overestimate their competence.
• Most politicians have no true knowledge of governance.
• Politicians reject the idea of needing knowledge to rule.
• Intellectuals claiming expertise are marginalized or executed.
• Democratic politicians fight for power, which leads to chaos.
• The rich manipulate democracy to serve their own interests.
• Politicians manipulate public opinion through flattery and lies.
• Masses mistake persuasion for competence.
• Demagogues are called "skilled" despite their lack of knowledge.

Plato's Normative Commitments

• The state should be harmonious and stable.
• Rule should be based on objective knowledge.
• Trained experts should govern because a natural aristocracy

Challenges to Epistemocracy

• Who decides who is qualified?
• Who selects the rulers?
• How to prevent expert corruption?
• Can knowledge alone justify authority?
• Plato argues for rigorous education in the Republic (philosopher-kings undergo 50 years of training).

Aristotle on Sortition & Democratic Elements

• Aristotle classifies governments based on who rules and how they rule
• Classifications are Monarchy/Tyranny, Aristocracy/Oligarchy, Polity/Democracy
• Public interest: Monarchy, aristocracy, polity.
• Self-interest: Tyranny, oligarchy, democracy.
• Sortition (random selection) was used in the Boulē (Council of 500): Set agenda for the assembly.
• Magistrates and juries: Ensured fairness and participation.
• Aristotle favored a mixed constitution, a mix of democracy and aristocracy

Aristotle vs. Plato (Politics)

• Plato thinks democracy leads to demagoguery
• Aristotle thinks democracy can be stabilized with laws
• Plato believes selection of leaders should be based on knowledge
• Aristotle thinks selection of leaders should be based on balance of power
• Plato rejects sortition
• Aristotle supports sortition in limited roles

Summary: Course Overview

• Plato's critique of democracy and his vision of expert rule.
• Aristotle defends sortition and favors a mixed constitution.
• Future lectures will examine the evolution of constitutional thought
• Future lectures will explore modern applications of classical ideas,
• Future lectures will compare Plato and Aristotle to later theorists (Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau).

Lecture 2: Plato - Normative Political Theory

• Plato wanted to define justice and design an ideal state where reason and wisdom govern.

Empirical vs Normative

• Empirical political science: Describes and analyzes real-world politics.
• Plato's approach: Creating an ideal system based on reason and justice.
• Plato critiques democracy as rule by the ignorant
• Philosopher-Kings have true knowledge of justice and the Form of the Good.
• Philosopher-Kings govern rationally, not for personal gain, and learn through rigorous education to eliminate bias.

Justice in the Soul and the State (Republic 4.434e-445e)

• A just state functions when each class performs its own role.
• Rational (Rulers/Philosopher-Kings): Represents wisdom, seeks truth and justice.
• Spirited (Auxiliaries/Warriors): Represents courage and honor, supports the rulers, and enforces wisdom.
• Appetitive (Producers/Citizens): Represents desires and material wealth, and must be controlled to prevent instability.
• Justice is when each part of society performs its role, ensuring stability and fairness.

Communism (Plato's Collectivism)

• The purpose of communism is to prevent corruption
• The idea is to eliminate wealth and private interests
• No private property for rulers or auxiliaries.
• Shared housing, meals, and lives for the ruling class.
• No private families: children are raised by the state.
• Producers can own property since they are not involved in governance.

Platonic Feminism (Female Guardians)

• women and men have the same rational capacities→equality in political roles
• should be educated the same way as men
• In ancient Greece, women were excluded from public life
• Plato is one of the first thinkers to advocate for gender equality in politics
• he still acknowledges that men are physically stronger

Eugenics and the Noble Lie

• The state controls reproduction for ideal offspring
• Marriages arranged to produce strongest children
• Inferior offspring are secretly removed to not weaken the class
• People are born with gold (rulers), silver (warriors), or bronze (producers) souls
• Noble Lie ensures acceptance of role in society
• Noble Lie prevents rebellion

Allegory of the Cave

• Prisoners live in a dark cave, seeing only shadows
• Someone escapes and discovers a real world'
• Cave = society trapped in ignorance
• Shadows = false beliefs
• Escapee = the philosopher,
• They return and educate others, even if resisted
• People resist enlightenment, making them unfit to rule
• Philosophers must rule

Plato's Key Political Ideas

• justice and harmony where each class performs its function
• democracy is ignorant and leads to instability
• philosopher-kings must be wise
• tripartite soul includes wisdom, courage, desires
• communism ensures loyalty
• platonic feminism encourages the same opportunities
• controlled breeding to produce the best
• allegory of the cave says people live in ignorance

Lecture 3: Al-Farabi & Ibn Rushd Main Topics:

• Revelation & Prophecy
• The Aims of (Civic) Religion
• Democracy as Elected Kingship
• Platonic Feminism

Al-Ghazali Critiques The Philosophers

• Al-Ghazali (1058-1111) critiqued Islamic philosophers
• The philosophers claim creation is eternal, so Ghazali claims they contradict the Islamic belief
• philosophers argue that God only knows universals, undermining omniscience
• philosophers claim that immaterial souls are resurrected, which denies bodily resurrection

Religion in Al-Farabi's Thought

• he defines religion as opinions and actions for a community by the first leader.
• religion is exoteric, for the masses, whereas philosophy is esoteric, only for the elite.
• religion functions as a Platonic noble lie
• the first ruler determines the religion, like Plato's Philosopher King

Section 3: Revelation & Prophecy in Al-Farabi

• Presents theory of prophecy
• A true leader combines theoretical wisdom and practical governance.
• Receiving revelation through intellectual emanation from Intellect.
• Not supernaturally chosen by God
• Revelation is symbolic for the public

Aims of Civics in Religion

• Functional
• Pragmatic
• Government

Creating a framework for justice and law

• The virtuous polity aims for collective human flourishing, not just elite well-being
• hierarchical structure, with a philosopher-ruler at the top.

Section 5: Democracy as Elected Kingship

• Al-Farabi sees potential in democratic governance
• Unlike plato, farabi condemns it out right, as he encourages trade intellectual exchange cultural vibrancy
• serves as a foundation for developing a virtuous polity

Ibn Rushd & Platonic Feminism

• Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 1126-1198)defended the compatibility of philosophy and Islam, which is included in gender equality in governance
• women's social roles are limited artificially
• educated and empowering allows benefits both society and economy
• women lack participation and creates efficiencies which anticipates feminists economic analyses

Lecture 4: Master Mo & Mencius - Benevolence & Harmony

• Confucius emphasized "ren" (benevolence) as virtue
• A good ruler should persuade, not coerce and embody paternalism
• Ritual (li) reinforces social order with habits that align with moral values
• Mandate of Heaven: Justifies overthrow of the corrupt leaders
• A cosmic order where corruption leads to natural and social disasters

Mencius on Benevolence

• Mencius argues love needs gradational care that extends outward through society
• He identifies 4 types of key virtues that are grounded in emotive terms such as compassion, disdain, respect and approval/ disapproval
• Ox Mountain analogy illustrates that nature is good, but it can be corrupted by external conditions and environments
• Mencius stresses environments and social conditionals shapping oral character
• mozi rejected confucian gradational care and proposed universal love which leads to harmony

Human Nature

• Mencius' view:*
• Requires proper cultivation - Pro-social
• Bad governance and social corruption of instincts
• Good governance = Pro Social
• internal moral development
• Mozi's View:*
• behavior from external incentives
• Behave well if rewarded
• Legalism = enforcement for maintain order

Consequentialism

• The morality of an action which is the most aspect that is most important
• Heaven's goals= Promote material, encourage growth, ensure social order

State of Nature

• Before governments/laws, people followed their own yi, leading to chaos
• Mozi argues that there must be uniformity to prevent conflicts and disorder
• unlike that the state of nature as harmonic and peaceful
• Bad government distorts justice and equality amongst one another

Key Differences Between Mozi & Mencius

• Malleable, impartial caring universal Love, chaos, enforce moral
• Inherently good, gradtion care family is most important, good governance, need values in role models and education

Lecture 5: Machiavelli - Who Was Machiavelli and What Was His Historical Context?

• Niccolò Machiavelli born in Italy in 1469, during the tense period of the renaissance, wrote the Prince, and other important works.
• The prince is a practice for rulers on how to gain and maintain power

Realist Political Science

• Machiavelli approached politics differently
• Focus on realpolitik instead of ideals
• Political decisions are based on rational instruments and not the true idea
• He rejects the ideals of virtue for what actually works
• Moves away from Aristotle of "what is the final goal?"

Leadership

• what is the prince? It's for rulers on how to gain power, not moral theories
• If the end is good, they will always excuse the means(suggested in discourses)
• a leader might get destroyed by always being good, he has to balance that
• Virtù - not moral value, but a leader's skill, decisiveness, and ability to adapt in changing circumstances

The Importance of Military Strength

• Political Strength = good military
• Strong military enforces laws
• do not use mercenaries troops

Fortuna (Fortune) and Its Role in Politics

• Represents uncontrollable circumstances beyond a ruler
• Skilled can still shape ones destiny

Can A Ruler Overcome Fortune?

• Bold instead of cautious
• decisive, aggressive action will be rewarded better than hesitant measures
• decisive action is powerful compared to hesitation governance-rejecting republics that exist
• Must be decisive and be aware rather then just focusing on the ultimate fantasy

Keeping Power Through Fear

• Fear is stronger as a motivator
• Too harsh can lead to rebellion
• Conflict is inevitable but is used for productivity

Section 6: Ibn Rushd & Platonic Feminism

• Machiavelli tells rulers to unit with their power to put down invaders
• A leader should be compared to Moses and appeal to pride

Lecture 6: Las Casas & Cugoano- Spanish Imperialism & Colonialism

• 1492 Coloumbus with the arrival began expansion into the Americas with the columbine exchange, which altered the global economy
• 1497: Vasco da Gama successfully navigated a sea route to India
• This was then followed by the treaty of Tordesillas between Portugal and Spain to divide the lands outside of Europe
• 1502-1503: The Spanish began colonizing the Americas, with the use of Encomienda the legal instrument that allowed forced labor

Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda's Pro-Colonialism Argument

• Said the Indigenous peoples were barbaric ,so it's the colonials' duty since they are so barbarian
• natural duty since they are intellectually weak he argues
• Argued the Spanish had a moral obligation to civilize the indigenous and convert them
• justified war and forced labor to bring civilization and end human sacrifice

Bartolomé de las Casas’ Counterargument

all men are equal

Slavery & Human Rights

• slavery practiced, justified with aristotles theories of naturally meant to be slaves:
• religious views on non-Christians were not property,
• Non-Christians are property needed be given for the goal of salvation economic slaves

Ottobah Cugoano and the invention of Universal Rights

• Cugoano rejects , mercantilism, the economic theory concentrating money creates destruction, wealth creates stagnation

What is mercantilsm?

• Cugoano rejected, the economic theory concentrating money amongst few people creates destruction,

Lecture 7: Hobbes & Locke- Hobbes and the State of Nature

• The foundation of politics should demonstratable
• Should be based on truth - Leviathan Leviathan says He that needs nations to governs themselves - Rejects Aristotle (He is a unique man)

Human Nature

• Hobbes sees that humans are self interested and competitive and prone to conflict
• There is no just without agreements are not reached, hence (No society) and no industry culture or justice due to ineffectiveness of agreements
• there is equality since one can kill the other . weakest is the strongest
• there are three reasons (a) competition (b) dididence (c)glory

Hobbes and the Social Contract

• Is the constant threat of death Solution is a mutual agreement in others to release to a power for order and protection

Locke and the State of Nature

• Locke argued about law authority which is the most important aspect and existed prior, as such people have rights and justice (liberty, property) but it lacks enforcement
• Locke agreed and disagreed with some of the tenants of it, said social is necessairy but the power created is to absolute.

Locke on Conventions

• Societal institutions and money are conventions
• Allows grow of property

Political Power and rebellion

• Locke allows for rebellion
• People have the right to resist with oppression and retain the right to do so unlike the views on rebellion and power. Revolution to rebel with others
• Influenced american and French Revolutions with the idea to resist this oppression and the ideas to follow

Locke distinguishment

• Use power legitimate with consent

Key Differences between Hobbes v Locke- Hobbes v Locke similarities

• all the differences between all arguments and all the power given to people and soverieghns Key Diffferences- all the diffrenec es