Political Systems Overview

Electoral Systems and Political Dynamics

• Winner Takes All System: Characterized by single-member districts and plurality rule, where one vote is cast for one candidate.
• Duverger’s Law: Suggests that a single-member district leads to a two-party system, promoting stability and accountability but may leave voters underrepresented.
• Examples: Utilized in the US, Canada, and Britain.
• Proportional Representation Systems: Involves larger district magnitude and offers a proportional rule, allowing multiple votes and typically leading to multi-party systems.
• Representation: Countries using PR often include ethnic and linguistic minorities in legislative processes, enhancing representation.
• Coalition Governments: More common in PR systems, risking lower accountability as small parties may gain undue influence.

US Healthcare System

• Healthcare Spending: The US has one of the highest healthcare expenditures per capita compared to other wealthy democracies.
• Healthcare Models: Includes National Health Care Systems, Social Insurance systems, and Public Health Insurance systems, each with distinct funding and structure approaches.
• National Health Care Systems: Funded by general taxes, prices regulated by governments; examples include Britain and Canada.
• Social Insurance Systems: Funded by enrollees and employer contributions, allowing for both public and private medical service providers; examples include France and Germany.

Variations in Healthcare

• Enrollment Requirements: Differences exist in whether enrollment in healthcare is compulsory and whether insurance is public or private.
• Choice of Providers: Patients' ability to select providers varies significantly between different healthcare systems.
• Pricing Mechanisms: Pricing negotiations between providers and insurers differ; the US exemplifies a lack of structured negotiations.

Political Institutions and Veto Points

• Ellen Immergut’s Veto Points Theory: Highlights how different healthcare systems arose despite similar public demands for affordability due to varying institutional structures and veto points.
• Veto Points Impact: Systems with fewer veto points, such as Sweden, tend to enact policies more effectively compared to those with numerous veto points, like France.
• Comparative Government Structures: Sweden operates as a parliamentary system allowing for efficient legislative processes, while the US has a bicameral structure with potential for gridlock.

Voter Turnout and Welfare State

• US Welfare State: Compared to other wealthy democracies, the US maintains a smaller welfare state, influenced by factors such as ethnic diversity and a belief in individualism.
• Electoral Turnout: Low participation rates primarily stem from disengagement of low-income and disadvantaged groups, sustaining a cycle of underrepresentation in policy-making.
• Alber and Kohler’s Theory: Argue that inclusivity of the welfare state impacts voter turnout; a universalistic welfare state could enhance political participation.

Money in Politics and Gender Representation

• Campaign Finance Laws: These laws influence the resources available for electoral campaigns, impacting the competitiveness of female candidates.
• Female Political Representation: PR systems allow for the emergence of female candidates more easily compared to single-member districts, where the two-party system tends to limit diversity.
• Labor Party Dynamics: The strength of left-leaning parties correlates with female recruitment efforts, with weaker parties resulting in fewer female politicians.