Political System 1851-1914

Introduction to the Political System (1851-1914)

• The Whigs and Tories faced political challenges in the 1850s.
• The Tory party had splintered due to the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846.
• The Peelites, Corn Law repeal supporters, created their own parliamentary faction.
• The Conservative party's success was aided by the flexibility and contrasting traits of leaders like Derby and Disraeli.
• Sir Robert Peel, Conservative PM since 1841, transformed history by introducing free trade.
• The Corn Laws protected landowners, and farmers from cheap foreign grain imports.
• These laws controversially kept the price of bread high.
• The Irish potato famine in 1845 prompted Peel to repeal the Corn Laws to alleviate suffering.
• Dominant Conservative landed interests opposed the repeal.
• Peel pushed through the repeal, which led to his resignation in December 1845 due to party opposition.
• The Conservative party subsequently split into two factions.
• The Peelites left the Conservatives to join Robert Peel.

Parliament and Mid-19th Century Democracy

• By the mid-19th century, reforms from the First Parliamentary Reform Act in 1832 were taking effect.
• These reforms strengthened representative government and democratized the political system.
• The monarch's power as well as traditional elites and aristocracy was weakened.
• Increasing wealth and prosperity from industrialization led to more men meeting property qualifications for the franchise.
• Britain remained a constitutional monarchy.
• The Bill of Rights in 1689 established Parliament's supremacy over the monarch.
• The monarch's role was defined by traditions and political habits, not unconstitutional power.
• Queen Victoria took an active interest in government and frequently intervened in state affairs, despite trying to remain non-political.
• Members of the Commons were elected and served a term of 7 years.
• Each government was led by a PM and a group of ministers called the cabinet.
• The House of Lords' dominance was still reflected in the Commons, where many MPs were younger sons, relatives, or friends of Lords.
• The 1832 Parliamentary Reform Act expanded the franchise to middle-class men, some of whom became MPs.
• Industrialization economically benefitted the middle classes.
• The middle classes believed they deserved political power because they helped create wealth but felt inadequately represented by the landed aristocracy.
• The organization of parliamentary constituencies disadvantaged the middle classes.
• The geographical spread of constituencies was uneven, resulting in underrepresentation for large industrial towns.
• Constituencies were divided into borough and town types.
• Each town and borough had different voting qualifications, but both returned two MPs, causing geographical imbalances
• Landed elites often controlled most of the county constituencies.
• The growing population centers including Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, and Sheffield gained parliamentary representation for the first time through the redistribution of seats implemented by the 1832 Reform
• Small boroughs with dwindling populations lost seats.
• The landed aristocracy lost its monopoly on political power and was forced to share it with the new middle-class merchants, manufacturers, and professionals.
• More MPs were from the middle class.
• 20-25% of MPs had no connection to the aristocracy or landed gentry by the 1850s.
• MPs were unpaid, and it cost about £3,000 a year to be one.
• Being an MP remained a part-time job for some, but qualifications changed, and an annual income requirement of £300 was abolished in 1858.
• Several Reform Bills were introduced in the late 1850s.
• The bills failed because of limited public demand and middle-class satisfaction with the parliamentary system during a period of prosperity.
• Working classes were excluded from political reform, and Chartism, their movement for extending the franchise, had failed to advance it.
• Only men of property could vote.
• Only 1/6 of adult population could vote.
• The MPs' social backgrounds diversified and around 2/3 of the MPs in the Commons were drawn from the industry of Britain by 1886.

Ruling Elites in Victorian Britain

• The British ruling classes, or elites, originated primarily from old aristocratic families.
• These families held titles such as Dukes, Earls, Viscounts, and Barons granted for their service to the monarchy.
• This tight-knit, small group wielded great wealth and power.
• Their political influence, affluence, and social power derived from land ownership.
• The 1832 Reform Act allowed the elites to control nominations for the majority of Commons seats.
• The aristocracy and landowners had their wealth increased by early 19th-century agricultural innovations.
• They benefited from increased demands for mineral deposits like coal and iron on their land.
• Voting in the past happened at public gatherings
• Voters declared their votes on a raised platform called a husting.
• Landowners could evict or bribe those who voted against their preferred candidate because of this public declaration of votes.
• Bribery was common.
• By the mid-19th century, a PM depended on the support of the Commons to maintain his position and conduct parliamentary business.
• Most MPs and cabinet ministers still belonged to the ruling elite and sat in the House of Lords, despite the reliance on the Commons for parliamentary support.
• They retained their dominance by aligning with the middle classes and safeguarding the status quo.

Prime Ministers in the Mid-Victorian Boom

• The 1850s and 60s were a golden age for the country.
• Lord John Russell's Whig government, in its final year in 1851, lacked a Commons majority but persisted due to Peelite backing.
• Russell was considered feeble, ineffective, fully immersed in the ideals of political and social reforms but did not galvanize his political supporters.
• His attempts to extend religious freedom to Jews, Roman Catholics, and nonconformists made him unpopular among Whigs.
• He faced a sequence of bad decisions, which upset many supporters.
• He promoted further Parliamentary reforms and thought some working-class people should have the right to vote.
• After Lord John Russell fell in 1852, a succession of governments followed.
• A Conservative lord from Derby created a short-lived minority government, which was superseded by Lord Aberdeen in 1852, the frontrunner of the Whigs and the Peelites coalition.
• Aberdeen's government had a strong cabinet that tackled education, religious tolerance, criminal law, and parliamentary change.
• William Gladstone, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, presented a strong free-trade fiscal plan.
• The reforms froze when the Crimean War broke out between 1854 and 1856, and public disgust over the administration of the war brought down the Aberdeen government.
• He was supplanted by Lord Palmerston, who prioritized foreign affairs, patriotism, and the promotion of British interests abroad.
• He gained public backing for some time.
• The treaty ending the Crimean War was a success.
• The Palmerston government fell in 1885 after a no-confidence vote concerning the government's handling of a response to the attempted assassination of Napoleon III.
• Lord Derby regained power with a minority government, featuring the politically ambitious Disraeli as his spokesperson in the Commons and Leader of the House.
• His government eliminated the property qualification for standing as an MP.
• Practicing Jews were given parliamentary seats.
• The government was ineffective and fell within 15 months of forming.
• Palmerston created a new government accepted as the first liberal one.
• Palmerston, despite that, stubbornly wouldn't engage with reforms.
• Gladstone as Chancellor of the Exchequer tied up loose ends with the free trade policy.
• The liberals gained another firm legislative majority for the election in 1865, even though Palmerston died ahead of holding office again.
• Russel, for a short time, turned as the head of a greatly liberal government and brought in a reform measure without delay.
• Proposing a bigger franchise vote but departed when its defeat was caused by a revolution revolt from the right flank of the party.
• A short conservative leadership under derby managed to introduce the second law alteration.
• It held one of the foremost fundamental provisions to the history to that time.
• Poor health brought derby's resignation, and he recognized Disraeli as the heir to take the leadership.
• While Queen Victoria accepted Disraeli, he lost the majority over his next election after only being in possession of 278 days.
• In responding to the popular electorates will he set a precedent for democracy
• He brought to light a current political structure in which parties would bear the control.

Parties and political alignment to 1867

• Political parties were informally structured.
• MPs were unpaid and required substantial income to qualify as candidates.
• Selection depended on personal connections instead of political capability.
• No central organization meant groups were largely uncontrolled.
• Contesting multiple seats in elections was common, with no punitive measure.
• MPs were independent due to few restrictions and political instability.
• Under these circumstances, MPs had very little allegiance to political parties.
• However significantly by 1850 and 1860 parties started to realign.
• There were 5 distinguishable political bodies serving within the British parliament in the 1850's.
• Consisting of: The Conservative splits into: Protectionists Derby and Disraeli for leaders.
• Peelites' free traders headed by Aberdeen and Gladstone.
• Whigs/Liberals leader: Russel, Palmerston.
• Radical: Cobden John Bright.
• Irish MPS 105, whose preference varied widely depending on which party would grant what to their request.
• On a limited scale, radicals are likely to support the whigs.
• The Peelites were unclear when it came to the break with conservatism and whether to engage in support for the Whigs and seek a path out.
• Robert Blake indicates that it was uncertainty over the vast political divide that formed the politics of the 1850's.
• Nine ministries existing between 1850 and 1867 that an age of political turmoil existed were it was unlikely that two parties would converge.
• It led to a new robust arrangement of political ideas and the beginnings of our modern system.
• Within a Conservative party was that; abandoning protectionism and attracting commerce and industry was ideal for building.
• The supporters of the Peelites had failed to come back.
• Elections revealed ineffective minority governments that had not persuaded many.
• Derbys' acceptance of the Whigs or liberalism and the opposing popular leader, this was a moment of lesser decisive policy.
• In tandem with that was how substantial talented opposition with only Distraeli and Conservatives' membership were untrusted.
• As stemmed from his Jewish faith and lack among aristocratic connections.
• Considered an opportunist used the election to what advantages come, and strength of his loyalty was questioned.
• As shifting in power, Whigs, Peelits, radicals, liberals formed the newly liberal front.
• Personality and party, background grew similar, and the aims of Liberals also developed, causing the minority under the lead the conservativley admin' by Derby.
• As such, a much strong dispute was more the result from such union.
• From each party some main figures meet, the group grew and a vote of no confidence emerged in the conservatives- thus the liberal party emerged led by Palmerston.
• Not til after 1865 that liberalism became an accepted philosophy and was freely to be called party.