Political Science Overview

Revision Lecture Notes

The state is a political organisation of society, a body politic, or more narrowly, the institutions of government.
A state is a form of human association, distinguished from other social groups by its purpose: the establishment of order and security; its methods: the laws and their enforcement; its territory: the area of jurisdiction or geographic boundaries; and its sovereignty.
The history of the Western state begins in ancient Greece with the concept of the polis, the city-state.
Key elements of a state include government, people (population), land (territory), sovereignty, and recognition.
Sovereignty is the authority of a state to govern itself and the supreme power over a body politic (complete power to govern a country).
Egypt's court system has three levels: Courts of First Instance, Courts of Appeal, and the Court of Cassation.
Courts of First Instance deal with civil cases and non-felony criminal cases.
Courts of Appeal hear civil appeals and felony trials.
The Court of Cassation is the supreme court in the common court system.
Egypt's administrative courts operate in parallel to the common courts.
These courts have limited jurisdiction and primarily deal with administrative disputes concerning government personnel decisions (appointments, promotions, transfers, retirement, salaries), and administrative contracts.
The amount in dispute cannot exceed 500 Egyptian pounds (approximately $65).
The Supreme Administrative Court is located in Cairo, presided over by a president, and hears cases in panels of five.

Human Rights

Human rights include civil rights, such as the rights to free speech, privacy, religion, assembly, fair trial, and freedom of thought.
The term "civil rights" derives from the Latin "ius civis," meaning "rights of a citizen."
All citizens of a country should be treated equally under the law.
Other types of human rights include cultural, political, economic, and social rights.
Examples of cultural rights include culture, religion, participation in cultural life, and language.
Examples of political rights include the right to vote, run for office, freedom of expression, and assembly.
Examples of economic rights include ownership and property rights.
Examples of social rights include healthcare, education, and freedom from discrimination.
Civil rights examples are equal protection under the law and a fair trial.
Women's rights face challenges, including unequal pay, political disparities, and cultural restrictions.

Historical Context and Philosophers

International human rights law emerged as a response to the horrors of World War II, although the Geneva Conventions had begun earlier.
The Geneva Conventions (1949) are a series of treaties focusing on the treatment of civilians, prisoners of war (POWs), and soldiers who are hors de combat (incapable of fighting).
The United Nations, through the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, established human rights as inalienable rights of all members of the human family.
Human rights are universal and apply to everyone, regardless of nationality.
Philosophers like Hugo Grotius, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, Edmund Burke, Mary Wollstonecraft, and Olympe de Gouges have contributed to the discourse on human rights with varied perspectives.
Grotius emphasized the right of self-preservation.
Hobbes stressed individual self-preservation and security.
Locke highlighted the rights of Life, Liberty, and Property.
Rousseau emphasized the importance of the general will.
Bentham viewed rights as creations of the state.
Mill focused on individual liberty, freedom of thought, freedom of expression, minority rights, and women's rights.
Jefferson emphasized Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness.
Paine championed the right of revolt.
Burke was critical of the French Revolution and opposed the right of revolt.
Wollstonecraft advocated for women's rights.
De Gouges promoted women's rights, proposing a declaration and a social contract between men and women.

Historical Events

The Magna Carta (1215) established limits on the absolute power of the British king, making him accountable to his subjects.
The American Declaration of Independence (1776) affirmed the principle that all men are created equal and highlighted the rights of Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness.
The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) emphasized Life, Liberty, and Fraternity.
The Renaissance Era (14th-17th centuries) brought about cultural, artistic, political, and economic “rebirth” in Europe, highlighting human rationality.
Protestant Reformation resulted in the separation of church (religious authority) and state (temporal authority), contributing to secularism.

Religious and Philosophical Foundations

The different religions have different approaches and views of human rights.
Monotheistic Religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) generally emphasize a single God and unique human rights.
Nontheistic Religions (Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Jainism) have unique approaches to human rights.
Ma'at, the ancient Egyptian concept of harmony and balance, provided a foundation for social justice.
Confucianism, often considered more a system of social and ethical philosophy, stressed values, institutions, and transcendent ideals of traditional Chinese society.
Ren (love or kindness), filial piety, humaneness, and ritual consciousness are central concepts.
Some examples of human rights in Islam include right to life, safety of life, and a basic standard of living.
Examples of human rights in Christianity include equality between humans, human dignity, right to live, and a good standard of living.
Examples of human rights in Judaism include the Torah, Ten Commandments, and mitzvot.