Political Philosophy: Hobbes, Montesquieu, Locke

Argued for a strong sovereign to maintain order and security
Believed that humans are inherently selfish and driven by a desire for power
His book Leviathan, published in 1651, laid out his political philosophy
He believed that life in a state of nature would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short"

Advocated for the separation of powers
He proposed a system of checks and balances to prevent tyranny
His ideas were influential in the development of the United States Constitution
He argued that a government with three independent branches (executive, legislative, and judicial) would be the most effective in protecting individual liberties

Argued for natural rights, including life, liberty, and property
He believed that government derives its authority from the consent of the governed
His writings influenced the Declaration of Independence and the American Revolution
Believed that individuals have the right to resist tyranny

Majority rule - Decisions are made by a simple majority vote
Minority rights- Rights of the minority are protected
Free and fair elections- Ensure that the will of the people is reflected in government
Political equality- All citizens have an equal say in the political process
Limited government- Power of the government is constrained by the Constitution

Pluralism
- Power is dispersed among various groups
- Competing interests form alliances to influence policy
- Political decisions are made through compromise and negotiation
Elitism
- Power is concentrated in the hands of a small, wealthy elite
- These elites control the political process and make decisions that benefit themselves
- The theory suggests that ordinary citizens have little influence on government
Participatory
- Encourages active participation in the political process
- Emphasizes citizen involvement in decision-making
- Examples include community organizing, direct democracy initiatives (referendums and recalls)

Took place in Philadelphia in 1787
Delegates from 12 of the 13 states (Rhode Island did not participate) met to revise the Articles of Confederation
Ultimately, they scrapped the Articles and drafted a new Constitution

Proposed a strong national government with a bicameral legislature based on population
Favored larger states with more population

Proposed a weaker national government with a unicameral legislature where each state had equal representation
Favored smaller states

After a President vetoes an act passed by Congress, Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds majority vote in both the House and the Senate

Proposal
- Two-thirds of both houses of Congress
- A national convention called by Congress at the request of two-thirds of the states
Ratification
- Three-fourths of the state legislatures
- Ratification by conventions in three-fourths of the states

A system of government where power is divided between a central government and regional governments (like states)
The 10th Amendment is closely linked to federalism, reserving powers not delegated to the federal government to the states or the people

The Commerce Clause gives Congress authority to regulate interstate commerce
Grants Congress significant power to influence the economy and regulate business
It has been used to justify a wide range of federal laws affecting the economy

McCulloch v Maryland (1819): Established the principle of implied powers, suggesting that the federal government has powers beyond those explicitly listed in the Constitution (like the power to create a national bank)
US v Lopez (1995): Limited the federal government's commerce power, ruling that Congress could not use it to regulate firearms in schools (The Court determined this was solely under state control).

Block Grants: Federal funds given to states with broad discretion on how to spend the money
Project Grants: Federal funds given to states or other entities for specific projects, requiring applications and competition for the funds
Formula Grants: Federal funds given to states based on a formula, such as population or income, to fund programs like Medicaid.

The transfer of power and responsibility from the federal government to state and local governments
Example: Welfare reform under President Bill Clinton devolved many aspects of the program to the states

McCulloch v Maryland (1819): Upheld the supremacy of the federal government over states, establishing the Necessary and Proper Clause and expanding implied powers
US v Lopez (1995): Limited the federal government's commerce power, suggesting that federal regulation was not appropriate in all cases (In this case, it involved limiting gun control legislation)
Marbury v Madison (1803): Established the principle of judicial review, empowering the Supreme Court to declare laws unconstitutional