Political philosophy: Aristotle

Introduction to Political Philosophy

• The lecture focuses on Aristotle.

Aristotle - Background

• Aristotle lived from 384 to 322 B.C.E.
• He was a student of Plato for 20 years.
• Aristotle founded the second great philosophical school in Athens, known as the Lyceum.
• He had interests in biology, meteorology, astronomy, physics, logic, ethics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, and government.
• Much of the Western world's understanding of Greek philosophy is influenced by Aristotle's work.
• He was a key influence on Judeo-Islamic philosophy and Christian theology during the middle ages.
• Medieval Islamic thinkers referred to him as "The First Teacher."
• Medieval Christian philosophers, like Thomas Aquinas, knew him as "The Philosopher".

Aristotle - Focus

• Aristotle was more concerned with the empirical world compared to Plato.
• He used his systems of logic to understand how the world operates.
• Plato focused on idealist or utopian philosophy.
• Aristotle based his ideas on observation, using this to develop his theory.
• He viewed political science (politikê episteme) as a normative and practical science.
• Aristotle defined political science as being concerned with the noble action or happiness of citizens
• He also understood that politics resembles a productive science seeking to create, preserve, and reform political systems.
• Plato believed knowledge is virtue itself.
• Aristotle stated knowing the right action is insufficient and acting properly is necessary.
• Aristotelian ethics emphasizes the practical habits of doing good, a practical approach against Plato's theoretical approach.
• The supreme good, according to Aristotle, is an activity of the rational soul in accordance with virtue/excellence.

Aristotle – Key Takeaways

• The state (polis) is the highest form of community and necessary for fulfilling human potential.
• Man is inherently a political animal.
• There are three possible types of government which include monarchy/aristocracy, timocracy/oligarchy, and democracy.
• Each type can exist in a virtuous or corrupt form.
• A best form of government will depend on specific circumstances and would likely be a mix of types.
• Citizenship and education are required to shape virtuous citizens and achieve prosperity.
• Education encompasses moral character, wisdom, and practical skills.
• Property and economics are linked to political order.
• Extreme inequality can lead to social unrest.
• Aristotle's political philosophy is tied to his ethical philosophy, as he supports distributive justice.
• Distributive justice concerns the fair allocation of resources, factoring in wealth, income, and social status.

"Man is a Political Animal"

• The individual is a social concept and not autonomous outside political life.
• Individuals are shaped through political life.
• Man is naturally a social animal.
• An unsocial individual is either beneath our notice or more than human.
• Society precedes the individual.
• Anyone who cannot lead the common life or is self-sufficient and doesn't need society is either a beast or a god.
• The purpose of a political community is to allow humans to flourish and to thrive in a community.
• Every city-state is a community established for some good.
• Every community aims at some good, and the community with the most authority aims highest to the good with the most authority.
• This is the city-state or political community.
• The ideas presented would continue to be a concern for political philosophy to come.

Government and The Self-Institution of Society

• Political science from the "founding perspective" of political science concerns the work of the Politian or Statesman, like medical science concerns a physician.
• Aristotle viewed politics as the "master science" setting the framework for all sciences and human activities.
• Political science is dedicated to governance and the well-being of the state, similar to medical science being dedicated to health.
• Political science is the knowledge informing lawmakers to frame the possible for a city-state's constitution.
• Politicians maintain the constitution and reform it as required, known as legislative science.
• A legislator or lawgiver moulds the city-state's parts into its final product, just as a craftsman moulds clay into a vase.

The Constitution (Composition) of Society – Political Science

• Political science identifies causes that are subject to investigation.
• Material cause is the substance from which society is constructed.
• Formal cause is the system of governance/constitution.
• Efficient cause is the leadership.
• Final cause is the purpose (the sake of the good life).

The Composition of Society: Material Cause

• Material cause (citizens) is not explicitly discussed.
• When discussing citizens, Aristotle gives weight to the family.
• Aristotle views women as inferior, passive, and limited in rights.
• Women were not given the right to participate in the politics of the city state as they are overly-emotional and lacking in rationality.
• Aristotle said that women require male supervision because faculty is "without authority", and defended paternal and material rule.
• The male is by nature more capable of leadership than the female
• The elder and perfect is more capable of leadership than the younger and imperfect.
• Aristotle thought women were essentially property.
• He compared the relationship between a husband and a wife to that of a ruler and his subjects.
• Aristotle excludes slaves from the definition of citizen.
• Aristotle argues that natural slaves lack deliberative capacity and require the despotic rule of a natural master.

The Composition of Society: Formal Cause

• Crafting laws requires recognizing customs and institutions, plus moral education for citizens.
• Themes that go beyond a technical focus on legislative science and law maintenance are important.
• There's a wider focus on requirements for stable socio-political systems, which has an enduring appeal.
• A constitution is to uphold laws, customs, and institutions for citizens.
• Politicians protect the constitution and ensure it is not subverted.
• The constitution provides for a certain ordering of city-state inhabitants .
• Constitution provides for the way of life of citizens.
• Consitution provides for an organizing principle, (Stanford Encyclopaedia),, analogous to the soul of an organism.

The Composition of Society: Efficient Cause

• The city-state needs a formal cause (constitution) and an efficient cause (leader or ruler) set out in the constitution.
• "The person who first established [the city-state] is the cause of very great benefits".
• The leader/ruler establishes the city-state and is responsible for survival.
• The leader is the agent that brings about the existence or change in society.
• Different types of rule are appropriate, dependent on the ruler and citizen's souls.
• Aristotle's concept of the citizen who would participate in ruling was typical of Greek thought.
• Aristotle's concept was dismissive towards slaves, women, and children as it was assumed that they lacked rational capacities to govern, and possessing a quality of virtue that was unsuited to rule.

Types of Rule

• Classification of government is based on the number of rulers and it represents the interests that they represent.
• Aristotle identifies six possible constitutional forms examined contextually rather than ideal-typically.
• The constitutional forms were Politics III.7 and Statesman 302c-d.
• This was very influential in future political ideas.
• Polity is the best practical government.
• Constitutions should aim at the common advantage, and those which aim at the advantage of rulers are deviant and unjust.
• Monarchy is the rule by one person, in the interest of all.
• Tyranny is the rule by one person, in their own interest.
• Aristocracy is the rule by a minority, in the interests of all.
• Oligarchy is the rule by a minority, in the interests of those who rule.
• Polity is the rule by a majority, in the interest of the majority.
• Mob rule/democracy is the rule by the majority, in the interest of those who rule.

The Composition of Society: Final Cause

• The purpose of human beings is to achieve happiness by living virtuously.
• The city-state's purpose is to help secure the good life, and is the final cause.
• Since every city-state is a community established for the sake of some good, every community aims at some good and the community with the most authority aims the highest towards the greatest good.
• Important to stress a self-instituting society.
• This is not a pre-ordained social order or theoretical ideal society as we should strive to achieve it.
• This reflects the wishes of those who live in and are citizens of the city state.

Aristotle v Plato

• Plato believed that society trumps all, and individuals should subsume their interests.
• The good society should be led by philosopher kings as the best qualified to perfect the city.
• These ideas are an elitist/paternalistic point of view.
• Plato was hostile to democracy/rule by the many.
• In The Laws, Plato spoke about a mixed constitution combining elements of monarchy and democracy
• Plato had an influence on absolute monarchy and totalitarian thinking.
• Aristotle had a different understanding of both politics and an ideal society.
• The city state is a collective entity comprised of citizens all of whom have the right to participate in deliberative assemblies and hold office.
• Athens involves significant direct democratic participation.
• Citizens were involved in government as much as law making.