Political Institutions and Mandal Commission Overview

Working of Institutions

• A government order, issued in 1990, involved an office memorandum from the Department of Personnel Training.
• The memorandum specified 27% reservation for socially and educationally backward classes in civil services.
• This order was based on the Mandal Commission's recommendations.

The Mandal Commission

• The Second Backward Classes Commission, headed by B.P. Mandal, was formed in 1979.
• Its purpose was to identify backward classes and suggest improvements for their advancement.
• In 1980, the Mandal Commission submitted its report recommending 27% reservation for backward classes in government jobs.

Why We Need Political Institutions

• Effective governance requires political institutions.
• Institutions like security, education, and healthcare sectors need institutions to run efficiently.
• In democracies, power is divided among institutions specializing in specific areas.

The Parliament as a Political Institution

• Parliament, comprising elected representatives, holds supreme political power in a democracy.
• Parliament creates, changes, and abolishes laws.
• It exercises control over the executive branch (Prime Minister and cabinet).

Functions of the Parliament

• Parliament is the final authority for creating laws.
• It amends existing laws and makes new ones.
• Mechanisms like parliamentary oversight, ministerial hearings, and impeachment empower Parliament to control the executive branch.
• Discussions and debates facilitate transparent decision-making.
• Parliament ensures accountability and transparency by scrutinizing the executive and being accountable to the electorate.
• It represents the diverse interests of the people, safeguarding rights and promoting social justice.

Types of Parliaments

• The national parliament is called Parliament.
• State-level elected bodies are called State Legislative Assemblies.

### Functions of Parliament

• Parliament requires a majority for decisions and conducting business.
• Parliament controls government funds and approves the budget.
• It serves as a platform for national and public issue discussions.

### Structure of Parliament

• Parliament consists of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and the President.
• Lok Sabha members are directly elected.
• Rajya Sabha members are indirectly elected by state legislators.
• The President's assent is essential for a bill to become law.

### Lok Sabha

• Lok Sabha has 543 elected members with 5-year terms.
• It exercises real power for the people.
• It's the "House of the People," directly elected.

### Rajya Sabha

• Rajya Sabha, the "Council of States", represents state interests.
• It has 245 members: 233 elected by MLAs, 12 nominated by President.
• Rajya Sabha members serve six-year terms, with one-third renewed every two years.
• Rajya Sabha is considered a permanent house.

### Upper & Lower Houses

• Rajya Sabha (upper house) is permanent; Lok Sabha (lower house) is temporary.
• Constitution grants special powers to Rajya Sabha, but Lok Sabha has more power.

### Lok Sabha vs Rajya Sabha

• Lok Sabha wields greater power due to:
  • Larger membership allowing it to prevail in joint sessions during deadlocks.
  • Power over financial matters – Rajya Sabha can delay or amend money bills for 14 days but Lok Sabha isn't bound by these changes.
  • Control over the council of Ministers and Prime Minister, who requires Lok Sabha majority to remain in power.
  • No-confidence motions originate in Lok Sabha, leading to government resignations if unsuccessful.

### Executive

• The executive implements government policies.
• Political Executives: Elected for a term (e.g., Ministers, Prime Minister, Chief Ministers) and their positions end with changes in government.
• Permanent Executives: Appointed based on qualifications, for longer terms (e.g., Civil Servants, IAS, IPS), and their positions endure through government changes.
• Political executives hold more power in decision-making, as they represent the people's will in a democratic system.
• Policy Making: Collaboration between experts (technical) and political representatives of public desires.

Understanding Policy Makers

• Policy-making needs collaboration. Technical experts input knowledge, while politicians reflect public will.
• Political Executives create policy while Permanent Executives implement the plans.

Prime Minister's Role

• The Prime Minister is the most powerful person in a parliamentary system, heading the government.
• They are indirectly elected by the President.
• The position influences major national decisions.
• The Prime Minister chairs Cabinet meetings, coordinates, makes decisions, oversees ministers, and appoints/dismisses them.
• Political parties and media impact public perception and the Prime Minister's power.
• Personality also plays a key role, influencing the Prime Minister's influence.

Coalition Government

• Coalitions occur when a single party fails to secure a majority.
• This necessitates power-sharing with coalition partners.
• The Prime Minister needs to negotiate and accommodate partners to maintain stability.

Council of Ministers

• The Council of Ministers assists the Prime Minister.
• Cabinet Ministers lead major ministries, are part of the core cabinet.
• Ministers of State (with Independent Charge) lead smaller ministries and have cabinet access.
• Ministers of State assist cabinet ministers.
• Collective responsibility exists, where members support decisions, even if they disagree.
• Civil servants (Cabinet Secretaries) provide expert assistance.

President's Role

• The President is the head of state, with mainly ceremonial duties.
• They are indirectly elected by Parliament and state legislatures.
• They don't claim a direct popular mandate.
• Ceremonial functions, appointments (Chief Justice, judges, governors, etc.), international agreements, and being Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces are part of their role.
• However, the President acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers.

Executive Branch

• The President is the nominal head of the executive branch.
• The Prime Minister is the real head.
• The Council of Ministers advises the President.
• Presidential action is constrained to the Council's advice, with reconsideration options.
• The President has the power to invite a leader to form the government if no single party wins a majority.

Legislative Branch

• Composed of Parliament: Lok Sabha (House of the People) and Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
• Lok Sabha is directly elected, Rajya Sabha indirectly elected.
• Both houses have law-making powers.

Judicial Branch

• The Judiciary comprises Supreme Court, High Courts, and District Courts (integrated system).
• The Supreme Court is the highest appellate court.
• Interprets the Constitution and resolves disputes affecting citizens, governments, and states.
• India's powerful Judiciary reviews legislation, protects interests, and upholds fundamental rights.
• Their independence is ensured through the appointment process and limitations on removal (impeachment).

The Power of the Judiciary

• Supreme Court and High Courts interpret the Constitution, ensuring legal compliance and fundamental rights.

Ensuring Judiciary Independence

• Judiciary independence is ensured through the appointment process (President consults with the Prime Minister and Chief Justice of India) and limitations on judge removal (impeachment).