Political Institutions and Mandal Commission

Working of Institutions

• A 1990 government order concerning SEBC reservations in civil services stemmed from the Mandal Commission's recommendations.

Mandal Commission

• The Second Backward Classes Commission, led by B.P. Mandal in 1979, aimed to uplift India's backward classes.
• The 1980 report proposed 27% SEBC reservation in government jobs; this triggered the 1990 order.

Need for Political Institutions

• Governing a country (security, education, healthcare, infrastructure) requires multiple bodies to distribute power and work.

Parliament: The Legislature

• Parliament (Sansad Bhavan) is the highest elected body, representing the people's will.
• Each state has a State Legislative Assembly.

Functions and Powers of Parliament

• Parliament creates, amends, and repeals laws, ensuring governmental accountability.
• The ruling party must maintain a majority to retain power.

The Executive Branch

• The Executive (Prime Minister and civil servants) implements Parliament's laws.

The Judiciary

• The Judiciary (headed by the Supreme Court) interprets laws to maintain fairness and protects citizen rights.
• The 1993 SEBC reservation order exemplifies judicial review and possible amendments.

Significance of Political Institutions

• Despite potential delays, political institutions encourage comprehensive decision making, leading to a more stable and democratic society.

Functions of Parliament

• Parliament controls the government's finances, authorizing spending via the budget.
• All public issues and policy are debated and decided upon in Parliament.

Structure of the Parliament

• Most parliaments have two houses (chambers).
• India's Parliament comprises Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
• The Lok Sabha (House of the People) is directly elected by the citizens.
• The Rajya Sabha (Council of States) represents state interests with indirectly elected members and nominated members; its members serve staggered terms of six years.
• All bills must pass both houses to become law after Presidential approval.

Lok Sabha

• Lok Sabha is central to legislation, executive control, and representing the will of the people.
• 543 elected members with five-year terms make it the most important legislative body.

Rajya Sabha

• Rajya Sabha( permanent body) has 245 members: 233 indirectly elected by state assemblies, and 12 nominated by the President.

Lok Sabha vs. Rajya Sabha

• Lok Sabha is generally more powerful due to greater representation.
• In disagreements, Lok Sabha's view tends to prevail in joint sessions.
• Lok Sabha holds more influence on financial matters, given direct election.
• Rajya Sabha is limited to a 14-day delay of money bills or suggest amendments.

Executive Branch: Political and Permanent Executives

• The executive enforces laws passed by Parliament, comprising political and permanent executives.
• Political executives (Prime Minister and ministers) are people elected by the people and have specific terms.
• Permanent executives (civil servants, judges) are appointed based on merit for long terms, providing ongoing expertise and support.

Why Ministers Have More Power Than Permanent Executives

• In a democracy, elected officials' authority reflects the public mandate.

Policy Making Process

• Policy making involves technical expertise and public opinion.

Executive Branch - Prime Minister

• The Prime Minister heads the government in a parliamentary system
• Selected by the party with most Lok Sabha seats.
• Appointed by the President .
• Key powers: presides over Cabinet meetings, approves legislation, and appoints/dismisses ministers.

Executive Branch - President

• The President (head of state) is not directly elected, chosen by MPs and state legislators.
• Appoints the Prime Minister and other officials, performing a largely ceremonial role.

Council of Ministers

• A group of ministers supporting the Prime Minister and forming the political executive.
• Ministers are categorized as Cabinet, Ministers of State (Independent Charge), and Ministers of State.
• Cabinet Secretaries (senior civil servants) support Cabinet Ministers.

Coalition Government

• A coalition government forms when no single party wins a majority.
• This involves multiple parties cooperating, reducing the Prime Minister's power.

Differences between Prime Minister and President

• The Prime Minister holds real power in governance, unlike the ceremonial Head of State (the President).

Importance of the Executive Branch

• The executive branch sets the political agenda, makes key decisions, and is vital for functioning.

Executive (President, PM, and Ministers):

• The President of India is the head of state.
• Prime Minister ("real power") and ministers form the real executive authority, though legally the President signs off on laws after the Council of Ministers advises them.
• Presidents can request the Council to reconsider its advice.
• President has the right to send laws for reconsideration.
• If a party does not win a majority, the President chooses a Prime Minister capable of proving majority support.

Judiciary: Structure and Role

• Judiciary: The Indian Judiciary is structured from district courts to high courts to the Supreme Court.
• Courts handle disputes among individuals, between citizens and government, and between states.
• The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal.
• An independent judiciary is critical for impartial decisions, separate from the executive and legislative branches.

Judiciary - Appointment and Removal

• Judges appointed by the President (on the advice of the PM in consultation with the Chief Justice), ensuring joint executive-judicial appointment.
• Removal requires a significant impeachment motion passed by a two-thirds majority in both houses of Parliament. This is comparable to the process of removing the President.

Judiciary - Power

• The Indian judiciary is extremely powerful globally. The Supreme Court possesses decisive powers to interpret constitutional validity—a vital aspect of judicial review.