Political History of Afghanistan

• Afghanistan's political history began with the Durrani Empire in the mid-16th to 17th century, founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani.

Anglo-Afghan Wars and Independence

• The First Anglo-Afghan War occurred from 1839-1842.
• The Second Anglo-Afghan War occurred from 1878-1880.
• The Third Anglo-Afghan War occurred in 1919.
• The Declaration of Independence was on August 19, 1919.

First Anglo-Afghan War

• Dōst Mohammad Khan took power in Afghanistan in 1826 after a decade-long civil war.
• Britain invaded in 1839 and installed Shah Shojā due to British-Russian rivalry.
• Afghan resistance led to uprisings where Dōst Mohammad was initially captured but later escaped.
• British rule collapsed, and rebels, led by Akbar Khan, killed envoy Macnaghten and massacred British forces in 1842.
• Dōst Mohammad regained his throne in 1843 after Shojā was killed and the British withdrew after a brief reoccupation.

Second Anglo-Afghan War

• In 1875, British PM Disraeli sent Lord Lytton to counter Russian influence.
• Britain invaded in 1878; Emir Shīr 'Alī Khan refused a British envoy but accepted a Russian one.
• Shīr ‘Alī fled and died in exile; his son Yaʻqūb Khan signed the Treaty of Gandamak, making Afghanistan a British protectorate.
• Britain reoccupied Kabul after the British envoy was killed and Yaʻqūb abdicated.
• In 1880, 'Abd al-Rahmān became emir, and Afghanistan's modern borders were established.

Third Anglo-Afghan War

• Afghanistan remained neutral during World War I despite supporting the Ottomans.
• Amānullāh Khan declared independence from Britain in 1919 after Emir Habibullah Khan's assassination, starting the Third Anglo-Afghan War in May.
• The war lasted a month, and Afghanistan gained control over its foreign affairs.
• A peace treaty was signed in August 1919 and amended in 1921.
• Afghanistan established ties with the Soviet Union before finalizing the treaty, lasting until the 1979 Soviet invasion.

Political Reform and the Fall of the Monarch

• Mohammad Zahir Shah ruled Afghanistan from 1933 to 1973, bringing stability.
• He became king at 19 after his father's assassination.
• He introduced a constitutional monarchy in 1964, initially having his relatives govern.
• Pursued economic projects with U.S. and Soviet aid while keeping Afghanistan neutral.
• Drought, famine, and tribal unrest weakened his rule.
• Mohammad Daud Khan, his brother-in-law, led a bloodless coup in 1973, declaring Afghanistan a republic.
• Zahir Shah abdicated and went into exile in Italy.

Communist Rule: Saur Invasion

• The communist PDPA overthrew Daud Khan in the Saur Revolution on April 27, 1978, which resulted in his and his family's death.
• Nur Muhammad Taraki became the leader and introduced radical reforms, which sparked resistance.
• The Soviet Union invaded in December 1979 to support the PDPA, starting the Soviet-Afghan War.

Soviet Invasion: Mujahideen Victory and Civil War

• The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan began on December 24, 1979, to support the communist government against the Mujahideen.
• The Soviets killed leader Hafizullah Amin and installed Babrak Karmal.
• They struggled against U.S.-backed Mujahideen fighters using guerrilla tactics, despite deploying over 100,000 troops.
• The war lasted nearly 10 years; the Soviets withdrew on February 15, 1989, under international pressure.
• The war killed over 1 million Afghans and led to civil war, contributing to the Soviet Union's collapse in 1991.

Taliban Rule (Up to the Present Afghanistan)

• Mujahideen infighting led to civil war, allowing the Taliban to rise after defeating the Soviets.
• The Taliban was founded in 1994 by Mullah Omar.
• The Taliban took Kabul in 1996, enforcing strict Islamic law and sheltering Osama bin Laden.
• The U.S. invaded Afghanistan in 2001 after 9/11, toppling the Taliban.
• The Taliban fought as insurgents for 20 years.
• A 2020 peace deal led to the U.S. withdrawal, and the Taliban regained control by August 2021.
• Strict laws were reinstated, causing economic hardship and international isolation.
• The Taliban remains in power in 2024, facing opposition.

Geographical Location

• Afghanistan shares borders with Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Iran and Pakistan

Famous Land Structures

• Herat Citadel
• Minaret of Jam
• Khwaja Abdullah Shrine
• Great Mosque of Herat
• Blue Mosque

The People

• Pashtun
• Tajik
• Hazara and Uzbek
• Aimaq
• Turkmen
• Bbaloch
• Pashai
• Nusristani
• Gujjar

Culture and Heritage

• Afghanistan's culture and heritage are deeply rooted in a history that spans over 5,000 years, reflecting various civilizations' influences and religions.
• Persian, Greek, Buddhist, Hindu, and Islamic traditions have left an indelible mark on its cultural landscape being a crossroads of Central Asia

Primary Languages

• Pashto
• Dari

Cuisine

• The Afghan cuisine includes Kebab (grilled lamb, chicken, and beef), Pilaf (rice dish cooked with meat, nuts, and spices), and Naan (flatbread served with meals).

Historical and Architectural Heritage

• Bamiyan Buddha
• Minaret of Jam
• The Citadel of Herat

Religion

• Islam is the dominant religion in Afghanistan, with around 99% of the population identifying as Muslim.
• The majority of Afghan Muslims are Sunni, accounting for about 80-85% of the population.
• The Shia minority makes up about 10-15% of the population.

Festivals and Celebrations

• Nowruz
• Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha

Political Conflict

• 1979-1989 The Soviet Invasion
• 1994-2001 The rise of the Taliban
• 2001 The U.S. Led Invasion
• 2001-2021 The Insurgency and the War on Terror
• 2021 The U.S. Withdrawal and the Return of the Taliban
• Post 2021 Current Situation

The Soviet Invasion

• The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to support the communist government of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), which had taken power in a coup in 1978.
• The PDPA government faced significant opposition from Islamic insurgents known as the Mujahideen coalition.
• The United States, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and other countries supported the insurgents as part of the Cold War rivalry between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.
• The Soviet Union withdrew its forces in 1989 after nearly a decade of conflict, leaving behind a destabilized Afghanistan.
• Infighting among factions within the Mujahideen coalition led to further instability after the Soviet withdrawal.

The Rise of the Taliban

• The Taliban, led by Mullah Omar, was a hardline Islamic fundamentalist group that promised to restore order and enforce a strict interpretation of Sharia law.
• By 1996, the Taliban captured Kabul and established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, imposing a strict form of Islamic law.
• The Taliban's refusal to hand over Osama bin Laden, the leader of Al-Qaeda, led to international isolation after the leader had taken refuge in Afghanistan

The U.S.-Led Invasion

• The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States by Al-Qaeda prompted the U.S. to launch military operations in Afghanistan.
• The U.S. and allied forces, including the Northern Alliance launched Operation Enduring Freedom.
• The operation was launched to topple the Taliban regime.
• The U.S.-led coalition attempted to rebuild Afghanistan, establish democratic institutions, and combat terrorism in the Post-Taliban State-building

The Insurgency and the War on Terror

• The Taliban regrouped after the fall of the Taliban regime, particularly in Pakistan's tribal areas, and began an insurgency against the Afghan government and NATO forces.
• The war caused massive civilian casualties, displacement, and destruction.
• While the international community invested in infrastructure and development, the security situation remained precarious.
• The Afghan government, led by Hamid Karzai (2001-2014) and later Ashraf Ghani (2014-2021), struggled with corruption, internal divisions, and a lack of effective governance in many regions.

The U.S. Withdrawal and the Return of the Taliban

• In 2020, the U.S. signed a peace agreement with the Taliban in Doha, Qatar, promising a phased withdrawal of U.S. forces and the opening of negotiations between the Taliban and the Afghan government.
• The U.S. began withdrawing its forces in 2021, and the Taliban launched a swift military campaign to take over the country.
• On August 15, 2021, the Taliban entered Kabul, marking the end of the 20-year conflict
• The Taliban declared the restoration of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan and Afghanistan was once again under Taliban rule.

Current Situation (Post-2021)

• Significant concerns have emerged about the erosion of human rights, particularly for women and girls, under the Taliban's return to power.
• The international community has been divided on how to engage with the Taliban.
• Afghanistan faces a severe economic crisis, exacerbated by sanctions, loss of foreign aid, and the Taliban's governance.

A. Form of Government

• Afghanistan has seen multiple political transitions, including monarchy, republic, and Islamic rule.

• After the fall of the Taliban in 2001, a democratic government was established, which included a president, a bicameral National Assembly, and a judiciary based on Islamic and civil law.

• The Taliban regained control by August 2021 and dissolved the previous government, establishing the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, with governance centered on Islamic law.

• The Supreme Leader holds ultimate authority in the new system.

• Before 2021, Afghanistan had a presidential republic, where power was divided among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, and the president was the head of state and government.

• After 2021, the Taliban declared the formation of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, which is an Islamic government based on their interpretation of Islamic law (Sharia).

Three Branches of Government (Under the Previous Republic System)

• Executive Department: Headed by the President(elected), who was both head of state and government, with the Cabinet who were appointed by the President.

• Legislative Department: Bicameral National Assembly consisting of the Wolesi Jirga (Lower House) with elected members, and the Meshrano Jirga (Upper House) with appointed members

• Judiciary Department: Independent judicial system with the Supreme Court being the highest court, interprets and applies laws with aims to ensure justice

• Legal System: Combination of civil law and Islamic law (Sharia), with courts responsible for interpreting laws aligning with the country's constitution.

• The Taliban government operates with the structure having a Supreme Leader, who has the highest authority.

• The government includes a Council of Ministers, which serves as the executive body.

• The government's judicial system is based on a strict interpretation of Sharia law.

Before the Taliban Rule

• Political parties included Jamiat-e Islami, Hezb-e Islami, National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan, Hizb-e Wahdat, Afghan Mellat and People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA

Under Taliban Rule (2021-Present)

• Taliban does not allow political parties
• Afghanistan is now ruled by the Taliban's Islamic Emirates
• Some oppostion groups still exist

D. Administration and its Governance

• i. Key Institutions and Structures
• ii. Governance Principles
• iii. Challenges and Future Implication

i. Key Institutions and Structures

• Leadership Council: The supreme governing body of the Taliban and the government, chaired by the supreme leader
• Council of Ministers: Comprises 26 ministries cabinet, headed by the prime minister
• Ulema Council of Kandahar:De facto ruling and executive oversight body, approving and disapproving all decisions
• Council of Ulema (National): Highest religious authority, responsible for ensuring all policies conform to Sharia
• Central Dar ul-Ifta: Issues fatwas on various issues, functioning as a religious judicial body.
• Provincial Governments: Each province has a provincial ulema council, a provincial governor, and provincial departments who implement the government policies at a local level

ii. Governance Principles

• Sharia Law: No separation of powers and total authority vested in the leadership.
• Lack of Transparency and Accountability: Government is criticized for being unaccountable.
• International Unrecognition: The government is internationally unrecognized and lacks a clear constitutional basis.

iii. Challenges and Future Implications

• Economic Crisis: Severe economic crisis, exacerbated by international isolation and sanctions.
• International Isolation: Largely isolated from the international community, hindering its ability to access aid and resources.
• Terrorism and Rebellion: Continues to face threats from various terrorist groups and rebellions, challenging its stability and control.
• Human Rights Violations: is widely criticized for its suppression of human rights, particularly those of women and minorities

Key Events US Withdrawal

• 2001: US involvement in Afghanistan(2001)
• 2002: President George W. Bush announces a plan to rebuild Afghanistan(2002)
• 2004: Afghanistan holds its first democratic elections (2004)
• 2011: Obama announces a plan to withdraw US troops (2011)
• 2014: NATO's combat mission in Afghanistan officially ends (2014)
• 2017: President Donald Trump announces that the US will continue military operations in Afghanistan (2017)
• 2020: The Trump administration signs a withdrawal agreement with the Taliban(2020)
• 2021: The US completes its withdrawal from Afghanistan(2021)

Taliban

• The Taliban, meaning students in Pashto, is a fundamentalist Islamic group
• The group has played a dominant role in Afghanistan's history for decades.

Taliban Leaders

• Mullah Mohammad Omar was the founder and leader of the Taliban.
• He ruled as the Supreme Leader of Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001
• Mullah Akhtar Mansour became the Taliban's leader after Omar's death was publicly confirmed from 2015-2016
• Hibatullah Akhundzada was appointed as the Supreme Leader in May 2016 after Mansour's death and has been the leader from 2016-Present

The Taliban's Origin and Rise to Power (1994–2001)

• The Taliban Flag bears the Islamic declaration of faith, symbolizing identity and governance
• The Taliban gained power in 1994 and quickly expanded its control.
• They captured Kabul by 1996 and established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.
• Under Taliban rule, strict Islamic laws were imposed.
• This resulted in women banned from education and work, and restrictions on media, entertainment, and political opposition.
• Providing shelter to Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda led to international condemnation.

Fall the Taliban (2001)

• After the 9/11 attacks, the Taliban refused to hand over Osama bin Laden.
• The United States and its allies launched a military invasion in October 2001, overthrowing the Taliban regime.
• The group went into hiding and launched an insurgency against the U.S.-backed Afghan government.

Taliban Insurgency (2001–2021)

• The Taliban regrouped and started an armed rebellion against the Afghan government and NATO forces.
• They conducted attacks, bombings, and assassinations over the years, destabilizing Afghanistan.
• The group gained strength, taking control of rural areas and challenging the Afghan government.

Taliban's Return to Power (2021)

• The U.S. withdrew its troops from Afghanistan in August 2021 after a 20-year war.
• The Taliban quickly advanced and captured Kabul on August 15, 2021.
• They re-established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan but faced international challenges, economic crisis, and human rights concerns.

Taliban Rule Today

• The Taliban government enforces strict Islamic laws, limiting women's rights and freedom of speech.
• Afghanistan faces economic struggles, humanitarian crises, and a lack of international recognition.
• The Taliban claims to have changed, but many of their policies remain restrictive.

Afghanistans Economic Challenges

• High rates of unemployment, food insecurity and heavily relies on foreign aid
• International assistance post Taliban takeover worsened the economic crisis Sanctions and banking restrictions limited financial transactions furthermore
• Afghanistan has rich natural resources, including minerals and rare earth elements that if used well the country could recover

Compare and Contrast Political Structure

• Afghanistan is Governed by the Taliban under an Islamic Emirate. Centralized authority under the Supreme Leader.
• Nepal is a A federal democratic republic with a multi-party system. A parliamentary government with a president as head of state.

Economic challenges Compare and Contrast

• Economy in Afghanistan is in crisis, reliant on humanitarian aid and lacks foreign investment due to political instability.
• Nepal has s Relatively stable economy, but faces unemployment, and is dependent on remittances although benefits from political stability and economic diversification efforts.

International Relations Compare and Contrast

• Afghanistan is largely unrecognized government facing diplomatic isolation.
• Nepal maintains diplomatic ties with global powers and actively participates in international organizations such as SAARC and the UN.