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Computer Architecture & Assembly Language (CAAL)

• BCA - 2nd Year, 3rd semester course
• CAAL is a subject about computer organization, implementation, and functionality.
• Computer architecture defines the rules and methods for describing computer systems.
• It includes three categories: system design, instruction set architecture (ISA), and microarchitecture.

Unit 1: Introduction

• Computer Architecture: A set of rules and methods describing the functionality, organization, and implementation of a computer system.
• System Design: Involves all hardware components, excluding the CPU, such as graphics processing units and direct access memory.
• Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): An embedded programming language that defines the CPU's functions and capabilities.

Further Details

• Microarchitecture: Computer organization defines data paths and storage elements.
• Basic Components of Computer Architecture:
  • Central Processing Unit (CPU)
  • Input devices
  • Output devices
  • Memory unit

Unit 1 - Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• The CPU has two main blocks: the program control unit and the execution unit
• The program control unit contains registers and control circuits to generate signals.
• The execution unit (data processing unit) contains registers for storing data and houses an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) to perform arithmetic and logical operations.
• There can also be additional registers in the CPU used as temporary storage for data.

Unit 1 - Input Devices

• Input devices help provide external data to the computer.
• Input data is received through keyboard, mouse, etc.

Unit 1 - Output Devices

• Output devices display results to the user.
• Output devices include printer, monitor, plotter, scanner, etc.

Unit 1 - Memory

• Primary memory stores data and programs during use.
• Primarily consists of RAM (Random Access Memory) for storing data and instructions while the computer is active, data is lost when power is turned off.
• ROM (Read Only Memory) as well as EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM), EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM) are non-volatile and persist even when power is lost.
• Stored data on ROM includes information crucial to computer booting and operation.

Unit 1 - Secondary Memory (Auxillary)

• Secondary memory is for long-term storage of data and programs.
• Hard disks, floppy disks, CDs, and DVDs are examples of auxiliary devices.

Unit 1 - Program Execution and Instructions

• An instruction is a single operation defined by the processor's instruction set.
• Instructions are a group of bits that determine the operation a computer performs. The instruction set defines the type of executable instructions and actions
• An instruction code consists of an opcode and operands, specifying the operation and the data sources.
• The execution cycle of instructions includes fetch, decode, and execute.

Unit 1 - Instruction Format

• Opcode is a group of bits that instructs the processor specifying operation..
• Operands are the addresses to provide data for calculations..

Unit 1 - Execution

• Execution is a process where instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed according to the program requirements.

Unit 1 - Control Unit (CU) (Central Unit)

• The Control Unit (CU) is part of the CPU and generates signals, controls the flow of data among processor units to perform tasks.
• Timing and Control Unit: generates control signals for executing instructions, synchronizes various operations .
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) : conducts logical operations of instructions, transfers data through the clock signals, which synchronize the clock to complete the task.

Unit 1 - Timing and Control Signals

• Timing signals control the sequence and synchronization of various instructions.

Unit 1 - Registers (CPU Registers)

• Registers are very fast internal computer primary memory for storing data and Instructions.

• Examples:

• Accumulator register

• General Purpose Registere

• Special Purposse Registers

Unit 1 - Input Output

• This is the mechanism by which information is transferred between the computer and the outside world or device
• Interrupt is a mechanism by which a module, like I/O or memory, can interrupt the normal processing of the CPU to complete tasks or processes

Unit 1 - Memory Access & Interrupts

• When a computer request a memory location, it is placed in a memory address register (MAR).
• The retrieved data is stored in the memory data register (MDR).
• An interrupt is a way of managing multiple devices while a task is occurring, without the CPU needing to wait for completion

Unit 2 - General purpose registers

• 8086 provides general-purpose registers for data storage, temporary use during calculation, etc.

Further Topics (From Remaining Pages)

• Memory Hierarchy (Primary and Secondary Memory)
• Types of memory (RAM, ROM, etc.)
• Instruction Cycles
• Micro-operations
• Data Transfer Instructions (Load, Store, Move, Exchange, Input, Output, Push, Pop).
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) Instructions (Increment, Decrement, Add, Subtract, Multiply, Divide).
• Logical operations
• Shift operations
• Pipelining
• RISC and CISC Processors
• Array Processors
• BCD arithmetic
• Hardware implementations for different operations
• Handshaking (modes of data transfer)
• Division algorithms