Plate Tectonics and Geologic History
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Questions and Answers

What did Alfred Wegner propose as the primary reason for the separation of continents?

  • The movement of convection currents within the Earth
  • A process known as continental drift (correct)
  • Volcanic activity beneath the Earth's crust
  • Erosion forces slowly breaking up land masses

According to the theory of plate tectonics, approximately how many major plates make up Earth’s outer shell?

  • 10
  • 30
  • 5
  • 20 (correct)

What is the primary source of the forces that likely cause the movement of tectonic plates?

  • The gravitational pull of the moon
  • Convection currents caused by uneven heat distribution in Earth's core (correct)
  • Atmospheric pressure variations
  • The Earth’s magnetic field

Which process describes the wearing down of mountains and elevated areas by forces like wind, rain, and ice?

<p>Erosion (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are the Earth's major time periods, or eras, classified?

<p>According to major sediment deposition and plate movement (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of the Earth is composed of both the crust and the upper mantle?

<p>Lithosphere (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of crust is typically described as being denser and younger?

<p>Oceanic crust (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of plate boundary?

<p>Submergent (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What geological feature is commonly associated with a divergent plate boundary?

<p>Mid-ocean ridge (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At a subduction zone, what is happening to one of the tectonic plates?

<p>It is being forced down into the mantle. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the point on the Earth's surface directly above the earthquake's starting point?

<p>Epicenter (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scale is used to measure the magnitude of an earthquake based on the energy released?

<p>Richter Scale (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name for magma that has reached the Earth's surface?

<p>Lava (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are intrusive igneous rocks formed?

<p>From magma cooling slowly beneath the surface (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a factor that causes the weathering of rocks?

<p>Deposition (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of rock is formed from compressed sediments and may contain fossils?

<p>Sedimentary rock (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main source of movement for alpine glaciers?

<p>Gravity acting on the ice mass (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Around how many years ago did the last ice age end?

<p>6,000 - 10,000 years ago (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are moraines?

<p>Deposits of till that form at the edges of a glacier (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the composition of till?

<p>Unsorted mixed materials, rocks, and sediments (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the concept of global solidarity?

<p>The recognition of shared humanity and responsibility, binding all nations together. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary challenge associated with the structure of the UN Security Council?

<p>The permanent members' veto power can prevent effective action. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is NOT mentioned as a purpose of the United Nations?

<p>To promote national interests above all else (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is 'Americanization' as described in the context?

<p>The spread of U.S. culture and media influence to other parts of the world. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did former Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau compare Canada's relationship with the U.S. to?

<p>A sleeping elephant where Canada is affected by every little movement. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the provided text, what is one of the negative impacts of globalization?

<p>The loss of cultural uniqueness. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Multinational corporations are characterized by:

<p>Operating across multiple countries. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key focus of the UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) established in 2015?

<p>Addressing global challenges from poverty to inequality. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was created in response to the:

<p>Atrocities committed during World War II. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What legal system does Saudi Arabia primarily use?

<p>Sharia (Islamic law). (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What action did the UN take regarding Saudi Arabia’s human rights record?

<p>It pressured them to promote freedom of expression. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the restrictions on women in Saudi Arabia, as mentioned in the content?

<p>They require permission from a male guardian to travel or marry. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role did Canada play in the Rwandan genocide?

<p>They had its peacekeeping commander dismissed by the UN. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason why the UN failed to prevent the Rwandan genocide?

<p>The lack of intervention due to the veto powers of the security council members. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean to interpret culture in the broad sense, as mentioned in the text?

<p>Considering aspects like behaviours, language, education and religion. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What economic situation occurs when a country sells more goods and services than it buys?

<p>Trade Surplus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a principle of the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)?

<p>Encourage military intervention (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the concept of a 'global village'?

<p>The world is becoming more interconnected and interdependent. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a non-governmental organization (NGO)?

<p>The Red Cross (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best describes the concept of "protectionism" in international trade?

<p>A policy that restricts imports to protect domestic industries. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a major reason why Canada consistently runs a trade surplus with the United States?

<p>Canada has a strong manufacturing sector producing goods in high demand in the US. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is "NIMBY syndrome" relevant to the discussion of trade and globalization?

<p>It demonstrates the challenges of balancing economic development with local concerns. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a "tariff"?

<p>A tax on goods imported from another country. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of "Fair Trade" practices?

<p>Ensuring fair wages and working conditions for producers in developing countries. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following BEST describes the concept of "interconnectedness" in the context of globalization?

<p>The notion that actions in one part of the world can have consequences elsewhere. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a responsibility of Canadian citizens?

<p>Working for the government (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of foreign aid provided by Canada?

<p>To reduce poverty and improve living standards in developing countries. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key element of the USMCA trade agreement?

<p>The promotion of free trade and investment among the three countries. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it significant that Canada is the 7th largest importer of cocoa in the world, despite cocoa-producing countries often being poor?

<p>It demonstrates the unequal distribution of wealth in the global cocoa trade. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of "mobility rights" in Canada?

<p>The right to work in any province or territory in Canada. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements BEST explains the concept of "interdependence" in a globalized world?

<p>Countries are increasingly relying on each other for goods, services, and resources. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the largest land use category in most cities, often taking up 40% or more of the total land area?

<p>Residential (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor primarily influences residential density?

<p>Age of the neighborhood (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of terminal facilities in a city's transportation system?

<p>To serve as endpoints for travel paths (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of commercial goods are typically purchased frequently?

<p>Low-order goods (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of urban land is generally used for industrial land use on average?

<p>6% (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of residential area generally has lower density due to design changes post-WWII?

<p>Suburban neighborhoods (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of urban land is typically allocated for institutional and public buildings?

<p>10% (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT a significant influence on land use patterns?

<p>Historical buildings (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of zoning bylaws?

<p>To control the type of development in an area (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which land use category enhances the quality of urban life by providing recreational spaces?

<p>Open space and recreational (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of high-density residential areas?

<p>Many housing units per hectare (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of travel path has the largest capacity and is designed for long-distance travel?

<p>Expressways (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is commonly found in areas with low land values?

<p>Single-family homes with large lots (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the primary biological features of the Hudson Bay Lowlands?

<p>Muskeg and peat-forming wetlands (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the climate of the region mentioned?

<p>Cold and frozen winters with brief sunny summers (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason that agriculture is nearly impossible in the described ground conditions?

<p>Composition of permafrost (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which continent has the fastest growing population according to the information?

<p>Africa (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following countries has the highest population?

<p>China (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a high infant mortality rate (IMR) generally indicate about a country?

<p>Poor healthcare access and services (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the natural increase rate measure in a population?

<p>The difference between birth rate and death rate (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor is NOT included in the total population growth rate calculation?

<p>Birth rate (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact did the Industrial Revolution have on urbanization?

<p>It increased the number of people moving into cities (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the rapid expansion of the geographic extent of cities and towns?

<p>Urban sprawl (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is the doubling time for a country's population estimated?

<p>By dividing 70 by the population growth rate (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of urban geography?

<p>Interrelations among people and their environments in urban settings (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which measurement determines the number of immigrants per 1,000 people in a population?

<p>Immigration rate (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What event primarily caused the movement of people from rural areas to cities during the late 1700s and 1800s?

<p>The Industrial Revolution (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which landform region is characterized by high, sharp-peaked mountains created by tectonic plate collision?

<p>Western Cordillera (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What geological feature is common in the Canadian Shield due to glacial activity?

<p>Small lakes formed by glacial scraping (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which landform region is known for being the smallest in Canada?

<p>Great Lakes-St.Lawrence Lowlands (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following resources is the Canadian Shield noted for?

<p>Valuable metallic minerals (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily characterizes the biological life in the Innuitian Mountains?

<p>No vegetation due to elevation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which landform region is primarily used for farming and is referred to as Canada's 'Bread Basket'?

<p>Interior Plains (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of rock is primarily found in the Appalachian Mountains due to their ancient geological history?

<p>Sedimentary rock (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the Great Lakes-St.Lawrence Lowlands is false?

<p>It is characterized by a mountainous terrain. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of climate feature is common in the Arctic Hudson Bay Lowlands?

<p>Harsh polar climate (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which adaptations are evident among the species living in the Western Cordillera?

<p>Ability to thrive in harsh high-elevation climates (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant environmental feature of the Canadian Shield?

<p>Presence of some world’s oldest rocks (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What geological process has most significantly shaped the Appalachian Mountains?

<p>Erosion (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the biological features of the Interior Plains is true?

<p>Its southern part is largely treeless. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In terms of resource availability, what is true for the Innuitian Mountains?

<p>Their hostile climate leads to being largely unexplored. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Pangaea

A supercontinent that existed about 300 million years ago, formed when Earth's land masses collided.

Plate tectonics

The theory that Earth's outer layer (crust) is made up of moving plates, explaining the movement of continents and formation of mountains.

Erosion

The process of rocks and soil being broken down and transported by forces like wind, water, and ice.

Mountain building

The gradual build-up of landforms, often caused by tectonic plate collisions.

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Geologic time

The vast timescale of Earth's history, divided into four major periods.

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Lithosphere

The rigid outer layer of Earth, composed of the crust and upper mantle.

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Asthenosphere

The semi-molten layer beneath the lithosphere, allowing tectonic plates to move.

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Convection Currents

The process of heat transfer within Earth's mantle, driving plate movement.

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Plate Boundaries

Areas where two tectonic plates meet, leading to various geological features.

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Continental Crust

Thick, buoyant, older crust that forms continents, primarily composed of granite.

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Oceanic Crust

Thinner, denser, younger crust that forms ocean floors, primarily composed of basalt.

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Divergent Plate Boundary

Plate boundary where two plates move apart, creating new oceanic crust.

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Convergent Plate Boundary

Plate boundary where two plates collide, resulting in various geological events like mountain formation or subduction.

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Subduction

The process where one tectonic plate slides beneath another, often resulting in volcanic activity and earthquakes.

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Hypocenter (Focus)

The point within Earth where an earthquake originates.

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Epicenter

The point on the Earth's surface directly above the hypocenter of an earthquake.

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Seismic Waves

Waves of energy released during an earthquake, traveling through Earth's crust.

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Tsunami

A series of large waves caused by a disturbance in the ocean, often triggered by earthquakes.

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Volcano

A vent in Earth's crust where magma rises to the surface as lava.

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Glacier

A slowly moving mass of ice formed by the accumulation and compaction of snow.

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Arctic Island Physical Features

A low-lying, barren island with coastlines ranging from extensive lowlands to spectacular cliffs. Summers are brief but sunny, while winters are cold and frozen with darkness lasting all day.

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Arctic Island Biological Features

Sparsely vegetated, with vast seemingly lifeless areas.

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Arctic Island Resources

The ground is mostly composed of permafrost, making construction difficult and often hazardous, and agriculture virtually impossible.

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Hudson Bay Lowlands Physical Features

A layer of sedimentary rock rests on top of the underlying Shield. It's a flat, low area covered by bogs and fens, dotted with ponds, lakes and streams.

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Hudson Bay Lowlands Biological Features

Mostly muskeg or peat-forming wetlands.

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Hudson Bay Lowlands Famous for...

The region is famous for its polar bears.

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Hudson Bay Lowlands Summer Migration

Caribou migrate to the area in summer.

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Hudson Bay Lowlands Summer Birdlife

In summer the coast of this region is alive with birds, such as lesser snow geese, Canada geese, brant, tundra swans, oldsquaw, king eider, and northern phalarope and many shore-birds.

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Largest World Population

Asia has the largest population in the world.

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Fastest Growing Population

Africa has the fastest growing population.

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Population Density

The number of people per square kilometer. It can be calculated by dividing the population by the land area.

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Demography

The study of human populations.

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Birth Rate

The number of births per 1000 people in a year.

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Death Rate

The number of deaths per 1000 people in a year.

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Natural Increase

How quickly a population is increasing or decreasing through natural means. It is calculated by subtracting the death rate from the birth rate.

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Residential density

The most important characteristic of residential land use, referring to the number of housing units per hectare. It is affected by land value and the age of the neighborhood.

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Residential land use

The land use category that includes all places where people live, ranging from single-family houses to apartment buildings. It often takes up the largest portion of land in cities.

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Land value and residential density

The value of land often influences the density of residential development. In areas with high land values, denser buildings are more common because they generate more income.

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Age of the neighborhood and density

Residential areas built before World War II often have higher density than areas built later due to smaller lot sizes and a reliance on public transportation.

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Transportation land use

The land use category for transportation infrastructure, including vehicles, travel paths, and terminal facilities. It often takes up a significant portion of urban land.

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Mass transit system

A type of transportation system that uses vehicles like buses, subways, and light rail trains. It is more efficient than individual vehicles for carrying large numbers of people.

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Expressways

The largest capacity roads designed to carry high volumes of traffic over long distances.

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Arterial roads

Roads that carry moderate traffic over shorter distances. They act as the major transportation routes within cities and often have commercial and industrial development along them.

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Collector roads

Roads responsible for moving traffic from smaller local roads to arterial roads.

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Local roads

The smallest roads, connecting homes to arterial roads. They are designed for local travel and often have lower traffic volume.

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Terminal facilities

Facilities located at the end of travel paths, including train stations, airports, parking lots, and docks. They are necessary for transportation systems.

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Commercial land use

The land use category that includes retail businesses involved in the buying and selling of goods and services. It is vital for a community's economy and typically makes up a small portion of land.

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Low-order goods and services

Goods and services purchased frequently, such as groceries.

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Industrial land use

The land use category for factories, warehouses, and shipping facilities. It plays a role in manufacturing, storage, and distribution of goods.

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CBD industries

A type of industrial land use located in the central business district (CBD) of a city, often associated with older industries.

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NIMBY syndrome

Opposition by residents towards proposed developments in their local area, often driven by the belief that the benefits of the development outweigh the costs for them.

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Import

Products or services brought into a country from another country. It helps individuals access goods and services that are not produced domestically.

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Export

Products or services manufactured in one country and sold in another. Driving export activity brings revenue and supports the domestic economy.

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Trade Surplus

A situation where the total value of a country's exports exceeds the total value of its imports. It signifies more goods are sold than bought.

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Trade Deficit

A situation where the total value of imports is greater than the total value of exports. It indicates a country is buying more goods than it is selling.

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Free Trade

International agreements that eliminate tariffs and other restrictions on trade between participating countries, promoting free flow of goods and services.

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Protectionism

A government policy that uses tariffs and other measures to limit imports and protect domestic industries. It aims to support local businesses by making imported goods less competitive.

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Tariff

A tax imposed on imported goods, adding to their cost and potentially making them less appealing to consumers. Aims to protect local industries and generate revenue.

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Fair Trade

A way to make international trade more ethical and equitable for producers in developing countries. It ensures fair payment for their products and sustainable practices in production.

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Foreign Aid

International assistance provided by one country to another. It can include financial aid, food aid, technical assistance, or other forms of support to help developing countries address social and economic challenges.

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CIDA

A Canadian government agency responsible for managing and coordinating Canada's international development efforts. It works to reduce poverty, promote human rights, and foster sustainable development in partner countries.

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Globalization

The process of increasing interconnectedness and interdependence between different parts of the world, driven by factors such as communication technology, trade, and travel. It leads to shared experiences, global challenges, and complex relationships.

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Global Village

A global community, highlighting the increasing interconnectedness and shared experiences of people across the globe.

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Global Citizenship

The idea that we are all part of a global community and share responsibilities towards its wellbeing.

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Interdependence

The concept that people are dependent on one another for their well-being and survival. Actions in one part of the world can have impacts on others.

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Global Solidarity

A call for global cooperation to address global issues, acknowledging the interconnectedness of humanity.

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Multinational Corporations (MNCs)

Large companies that operate in multiple countries, often with global influence.

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Americanization

The process of a dominant culture, often American, spreading and influencing other cultures.

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Culture

The unique characteristics, values, and practices that define a nation or group.

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General Assembly (GA)

The UN's main body, responsible for discussing and coordinating international issues.

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Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The UN's 17 Sustainable Development Goals, adopted in 2015, aimed at addressing global challenges by 2030.

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Security Council (UNSC)

The most powerful UN body, with the authority to impose sanctions and veto resolutions.

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Universal Declaration of Human Rights

A document outlining fundamental human rights for all, adopted by the UN in 1948.

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Sharia Law in Saudi Arabia

The application of Sharia law as the governing legal system in Saudi Arabia.

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International Sanctions

Restrictions and limitations imposed on a country by other nations, often in response to violations of international norms.

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Threat to Sovereignty

A situation where the sovereignty of a nation or a group within a nation is threatened.

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Rwandan Genocide

The Rwandan genocide of 1994, marked by a tragic mass slaughter of Tutsi people.

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UN's Responsibility to Protect (R2P)

The responsibility and obligation of the UN to protect the sovereignty of nations and individuals from harm, especially in the context of genocide and human rights violations.

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What is a landform?

A landform is a distinct geographical feature of the Earth's surface with unique characteristics. It can be a mountain, a plain, a valley, or a plateau, each with its own unique set of features and geological processes.

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Describe the Canadian Shield.

The Canadian Shield is a vast, ancient geological region covering more than half of Canada. It is characterized by its relatively flat terrain with rounded hills of metamorphic rocks, which are actually the roots of ancient, eroded mountains. It also boasts some of the world's oldest rocks, often found at or near the surface.

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How was the Western Cordillera formed?

The Western Cordillera is a mountainous region along Canada's western edge, made up of numerous mountain ranges separated by plateaus and valleys, running north to south. These mountains were formed relatively recently by the collision of the North American and Pacific tectonic plates.

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How did the Appalachian Mountains form?

The Appalachian Mountains are the oldest highland region in Canada, created by the collision of the North American plate with Europe and Africa about 300 million years ago. Erosion over time has rounded the mountains, creating a landscape of rolling hills and valleys.

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What makes the Innuitian Mountains different from the Appalachians?

The Innuitian Mountains are Canada's Arctic mountain range, located in the Nunavut and Northwest Territories. They are younger than the Appalachians, so they haven't been eroded as much, resulting in sharper peaks and higher elevations.

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Explain the formation of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands.

The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands are the smallest landform region in Canada, situated south of the Canadian Shield in Ontario and Quebec. It features flat plains, small hills, and deep river valleys, all formed by glacial deposits of soil, sand, and gravel. The Great Lakes themselves occupy basins carved out by the glaciers.

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Describe the formation of the Interior Plains.

The Interior Plains are vast and flat, stretching through the middle of Canada from north to south, covering most of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and parts of other provinces. They were formed by sediments from the Canadian Shield and the Rocky Mountains that were deposited in shallow inland seas and then compressed over time.

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Describe the Arctic Hudson Bay Lowlands.

The Arctic Hudson Bay Lowlands are a series of islands located in Canada's far north, north of the Canadian Shield but south of Hudson Bay. These lowlands are characterized by their cold, Arctic climate and limited plant life.

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What is the impact of Glaciers on the Canadian landscape?

Glaciers play a significant role in shaping Canada's landscape, particularly by depositing soil, sand, and gravel, carving out valleys and basins, and creating various landforms like the Great Lakes and the lowlands. The Canadian Shield is a perfect example of how glaciers have significantly sculpted the terrain.

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What are the main resources and characteristics of the Canadian Shield?

The Canadian Shield is a treasure trove of valuable metallic minerals such as lead, gold, nickel, copper, and zinc. Its sparsely populated nature and thin soil make farming difficult but it's a great spot for recreation due to its many lakes, waterfalls, and forests.

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What are the key characteristics and resources of the Western Cordillera?

The Western Cordillera, with its rugged mountains and valleys, is sparsely populated due to challenging terrain and difficult travel conditions. However, it is rich in natural resources, such as minerals, timber, and sources of hydroelectric power.

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What are the most important resources found in the Appalachian Mountains?

The Appalachian Mountains have rich deposits of non-metallic minerals, particularly coal, but also contain some metallic minerals like iron and zinc. The region's location and deep harbors make it ideal for shipping, while its forests provide timber resources.

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What are the key features and resources of the Innuitian Mountains?

The Innuitian Mountains, located in Canada's far north, are largely unexplored due to their harsh climate and challenging terrain. They are named after the indigenous people who inhabit the region and are home to unique arctic wildlife adapted to the extreme cold.

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What are the main resources and characteristics of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands?

The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands offer fertile soils and a warm climate, making it ideal for agriculture. It is home to a large proportion of Canada's population and manufacturing industries.

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Why are the Interior Plains known as Canada's “Bread Basket”?

The Interior Plains are Canada's primary agricultural region, known as the

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Study Notes

Plate Tectonics

  • Alfred Wegener proposed continental drift in 1915, suggesting continents separated due to movement.
  • Around 300 million years ago, landmasses collided to form Pangaea ("all land").
  • Pangaea broke apart around 200 million years ago.
  • J. Tuzo Wilson helped develop the plate tectonics theory.
  • By 1968, plate tectonics was established; Earth's outer shell is composed of about 20 plates, primarily made of continental and oceanic crust.
  • The forces driving plate movement are largely attributed to convection currents, driven by heat distribution in Earth's core.

North America's Geologic History

  • Mountain building and erosion shape landforms.
  • Erosion (wind, rain, water, ice) continually wears down elevated areas.
  • When mountain building is more active than erosion, land rises; conversely, stronger erosion lowers land.

Geologic Time

  • Earth's history is categorized into four eras, each representing periods of major sediment deposition and plate movement.

Layers of the Earth

  • Earth's layers are categorized as compositional (crust, mantle, core) and mechanical (lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, inner core).
  • The lithosphere is composed of the crust and uppermost mantle.
  • The asthenosphere lies beneath the lithosphere, allowing plates to slide over it.

Plate Tectonic Concepts

  • Plate boundaries mark where two plates meet, often causing mountain formation.
  • Convection currents drive heat-driven cycles in air, oceans, and Earth's mantle.
  • Plate boundaries are where plates meet (divergent, convergent, transform).

Crust Types

  • Two types of crust:
    • Continental crust—buoyant, thicker, older, composed of granite.
    • Oceanic crust—denser, thinner, younger, composed of basalt.

Plate Boundary Types

  • Divergent: Creates mid-ocean ridges; new oceanic crust forms as magma rises and pushes plates apart.
  • Convergent: Three types:
    • Continent-continent collision: forms mountain ranges.
    • Continent-oceanic collision: Subduction (one plate dives beneath the other) creates trenches and volcanic arcs.
    • Oceanic-oceanic collision: One oceanic plate subducts, forming trenches.
  • Transform: Plates slide past each other, often causing earthquakes.

Earthquakes

  • Earthquakes typically occur along fault lines where rocks in the lithosphere break.
  • Transform plate boundaries frequently cause earthquakes.
  • Fault/Fault Plane: The surface where two blocks slip past each other.
  • Hypocenter: The starting point of an earthquake.
  • Epicenter: The location directly above the hypocenter.
  • Seismic Waves: Vibrations that spread through rock as energy is released.
  • Seismographs: Measure the magnitude (size) of earthquakes using seismic waves.
  • Richter scale: Measures earthquake magnitude based on energy released.

Tsunamis

  • Tsunamis are a series of waves generated by disturbances in the ocean, often earthquakes.

Volcanoes

  • Magma rises through the mantle and escapes through Earth's crust at volcanoes.
  • Lava is magma at the surface.
  • Hotspots are areas where magma erupts through thin crust.

The Rock Cycle

  • Three rock types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
  • Igneous rocks (make up 95% of Earth): Form when magma cools. (2 types: intrusive/extrusive)
  • Intrusive igneous: Magma cools slowly beneath the surface (e.g., granite).
  • Extrusive igneous: Lava cools quickly at the surface (e.g., obsidian).
  • Weathering: Breakdown of rocks by natural forces.
  • Erosion: Movement of broken rock fragments.
  • Deposition: Accumulation of eroded materials in a new location.
  • Sedimentary rock: Formed from compressed sediments.
  • Metamorphic rock: Rocks altered by extreme heat and pressure.

Glaciation

  • Glacier: Slowly moving mass of ice formed by snow accumulation.
  • Glaciation: Process, condition, or result of glacier/ice sheet coverage.
  • Glaciers form over hundreds of years from accumulated snow.
  • Icebergs: Pieces of land-based ice that float.
  • Types: Alpine (mountain) and continental (ice sheets).
  • Glacial movement: influenced by gravity, varying in speed.
  • Glaciation involves snow accumulation and ice flow.

Ice Ages

  • Ice Age: Period with freezing temperatures forming ice sheets.
  • Earth has experienced many ice ages.
  • Last ice age ended 6,000-10,000 years ago.

Glacial Land Forms

  • Till plain: Land with small hills and valleys from melted glacier debris.
  • Till: Unsorted mixture of rocks and sediment of varying sizes.
  • Moraine: Till deposits at glacier edges, forming hills and small lakes.

Landforms of Canada

  • Canada is divided into seven landform regions: Western Cordillera, Interior Plains, Canadian Shield, Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands, Appalachian Mountains, Hudson Bay–Arctic Lowlands, Innuitian Mountains.

Canadian Shield

  • Location: Covers much of eastern Canada.
  • Physical features: Relatively flat with rounded hills of ancient metamorphic rock; contains valuable minerals (lead, gold, nickel, copper, zinc).
  • Biological features: Boreal forest in the south, tundra in the north; moose, caribou, bear species.
  • Resources: Valuable metallic minerals, limited farming.

Western Cordillera

  • Location: Western edge of Canada.
  • Physical features: High, sharp-peaked mountains, plateaus, valleys; formed by plate collision.
  • Biological features: Herbs/shrubs at high elevations, coniferous forests/grasslands.
  • Resources: Minerals, timber, hydropower.

Appalachian Mountains

  • Location: Southern Quebec, Atlantic Provinces.
  • Physical features: Oldest highland region in Canada; rounded mountains from erosion.
  • Biological features: Broadleaf (hardwood) forests.
  • Resources: Harbors, coal, iron, and zinc.

Innuitian Mountains

  • Location: Arctic Canada.
  • Physical features: High mountains, less eroded than Appalachians.
  • Biological features: Sparse vegetation.
  • Resources: Largely unexplored, but resource potential.

Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands

  • Location: Southern parts of Ontario and Quebec.
  • Physical features: Flat plains, small hills; formed by glacial deposits.
  • Biological features: Mixed forests, now less extensive.
  • Resources: 70% of manufacturing industries, 50% of population, agricultural potential.

Interior Plains

  • Location: Central Canada.
  • Physical features: Flat, fertile soil; formed from sediments from the Canadian Shield and Rocky Mountains.
  • Biological features: Grasslands and boreal forest northward.
  • Resources: Wheat farming ('Bread Basket'), minerals, oil, gas.

Hudson Bay-Arctic Lowlands

  • Location: Northern Canada, including islands.
  • Physical features: Low-lying, barren, ice-covered.
  • Biological features: Minimal vegetation.
  • Resources: Vast minerals, but harsh climate.

Population

  • Population density: Number of people per square kilometer.
  • Demography: Study of human populations.
  • Birth rate: Births per 1,000 people.
  • Death rate: Deaths per 1,000 people.
  • Natural increase: Birth rate minus death rate.
  • Immigration: Movement into a country.
  • Emigration: Movement out of a country.
  • Net migration rate: Difference between immigration and emigration rates.
  • Total population growth rate: Sum of natural increase and net migration rate.
  • Doubling time: Years for a population to double.
  • Doubling time estimated using: (70)/growth rate).
  • Census: Population count and related data.

Urban Geography

  • Urban geography focuses on people/environment relations in cities.
  • Industrial revolution led to urbanization (movement to cities).
  • Urban sprawl: Expansion of cities outwards.
  • Land use categories: residential, transportation, institutional buildings, open space, industrial, commercial.
  • Residential land use: Houses, apartments; density varies by land value and neighborhood age.

Trade

  • Trade benefits both importers and exporters by allowing greater access to goods and services.
  • Main trading partners: US, EU, China.
  • Free trade agreements (NAFTA/USMCA): Reduce trade barriers.
  • Protectionism: Policies that protect domestic industries from foreign competition.

Foreign Aid

  • Foreign aid: Assistance provided to countries by other countries.
  • Often involves sending money, food, supplies, or resources.
  • Administered by agencies such as CIDA (Canadian International Development Agency).

Globalization

  • Globalization: Increasing interaction and interconnectedness (political, economic, social etc).
  • "Global village": Concept of a world operating as one large community.
  • Citizens have responsibilities (and rights).
  • Interconnectedness: Actions affect globally.
  • Interdependence: Dependence on one another.
  • Multinational corporations: Companies operating worldwide.

The United Nations (UN)

  • Formed in 1945 to prevent conflicts.
  • Purposes: Keeping peace, developing friendly relations, improving lives, respecting rights.
  • Components: General Assembly, Security Council, etc.
  • Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Global challenges addressed by the UN.

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Explore the foundational concepts of plate tectonics, including Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift and Pangaea's formation. Dive into North America's geologic history, where mountain building and erosion play critical roles in shaping landscapes. Understand how Earth's geologic time is marked by significant events in plate movement and sediment deposition.

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