Plant and Animal Reproduction

Sexual Reproduction

• Sexual reproduction requires two parents to produce offspring.
• Both plants and animals reproduce sexually
• Flowering plants use sexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction

• Asexual reproduction involves a single parent producing offspring.
• Plants commonly reproduce asexually, while it is less common in animals.

Binary Fission

• Binary fission is a reproduction method used by bacteria and amoeba.
• The parent's DNA replicates, and the cell divides into two identical daughter cells.

Budding

• Budding is an asexual reproduction process where offspring grow from a bud-like structure on the parent.
• Echinodermata and hydra reproduce via this method.
• The buds detach from the parent body and live independently.

Fragmentation

• Fragmentation is an asexual reproduction method where the parent organism splits into fragments.
• Each fragment develops into a new organism.
• Starfish, can create a new organism from a severed arm.

Parthenogenesis

• Parthenogenesis is an asexual reproduction process where a female generates eggs that develop without fertilization.
• Lizards, some insects, and fishes reproduce this way.
• Parthenogenesis is not seen in mammals, but occurs in both plants and animals.

Vegetative Propagation

• Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in plants where new plants arise from buds on stems or leaves.
• The tuber (potato), bulb (onion), stolon/runner (strawberry), rhizome (ginger), sucker (banana), stem cutting (rose), and leaf (welcome plant) are examples of vegetative propagation.

The Flower

• A flower is the sexual reproductive organ in plants, often being its most attractive structure.
• A flower consists of the calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium.

Calyx

• The calyx consists of green, petal-like sepals located above the flower's receptacle (base).
• The calyx's primary function is to protect the flower while it is a bud.

Corolla

• Corolla refers to the collective petals of a flower which are often colorful and fragrant.
• The petals attract pollinating agents and are located above the calyx layer.

Androecium

• The androecium is the male reproductive part of a flower.
• It is composed of stamens, each with a filament and an anther which produces pollen.
• Anthers are lobed structures that produce pollen.

Gynoecium

• The gynoecium is the female reproductive organ of a flower.
• It consists of the ovary, style, and stigma.
• The stigma, located atop the slender style, retains transferred pollen grains.
• The ovary is lobed and contains female gamete-containing ovules which are moved towards by the style.

Pollination and Fertilization

• Pollination and fertilization requires external factors for pollen grains and ovules to move.
• Wind, water, or animals facilitate the pollen grains' travel to the stigma of the same or another flower.
• Fertilization occurs after pollination and germination in plants, making it a sexual process.

Fertilization Process

• Fertilization is the fusion of male gametes (pollen) with female gametes (ovum) to form a diploid zygote
• It is a physicochemical mechanism that occurs after carpel pollination.
• The fertilized zygote undergoes development into a seed.
• Gametes in haploid conditions fuse to create a diploid zygote.

Types of Fertilization

• Fertilization types are grouped based on the pollen tube's entry point into the ovule.
• The three main types are porogamy, chalazogamy, and mesogamy.

Porogamy

• Porogamy is common in angiosperms/flowering plants.
• The pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle.

Chalazogamy

• Chalazogamy occurs in Casuarina species.
• The pollen tube enters the ovule through the pollen tube itself.

Mesogamy

• Mesogamy is found in Cucurbit plants (pumpkin, gourds, etc.).
• The pollen tube enters the ovule through its middle part or integuments.

Double Fertilization

• Double fertilization is when two male gametes fuse with a female gametophyte.
• One sperm cell fuses with the egg-producing zygote.
• The other fuses to create the endosperm with the two polar nuclei.
• Angiosperms undergo a dual process of fertilization.

Reproduction in Humans

• Human reproduction is sexual, requiring both male and female gametes to fertilize and form a zygote and develops into an embryo
• Fertilization happens inside the female's body, which makes in internal fertilization.

The Male Reproductive System

• The penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse and urination where semen and urine exit through the urethra.
• The scrotum protects the testicles and maintains optimal temperature for sperm survival, and is cooler than body temperature.
• Muscles in the scrotum wall contract/relax to move testicles closer to the body.
• The epididymis stores and carries sperm and binds to the vas deferens.
• The testis is the site of testosterone and sperm production within seminiferous tubules.
• Accessory organs include the vas deferens, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands.
• Mature sperm is transported by the vas deferens to the urethra during ejaculation.
• Seminal vesicles produce molecules like fructose for sperm energy.
• The prostate gland adds fluid to the ejaculate for sperm nourishment.
• Bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands secrete fluid that lubricates the urethra and neutralizes acidity.

The Female Reproductive System

• The main components include the uterus which hosts the developing fetus and the ovaries where there are egg cells.
• The uterus produces vaginal/uterine secretions and facilitates sperm passage to the fallopian tubes.
• Ovaries produce female eggs (ova), progesterone, and estrogen.
• Internal parts consist of the vagina (containing labia, clitoris, urethra), which connects to the external vulva organs.
• The vagina connects to the uterus via the cervix, with the uterus attached to the ovaries through fallopian tubes.
• Ovaries release an ovum, which travels to the uterus through the fallopian tube.

Fertilization in Females

• Sperm can merge with the egg, fertilizing it, the oviducts or uterus where it occurs.
• The zygote implants in the uterine wall, initiates embryogenesis and morphogenesis.
• The cervix dilates and contractions push the fetus through the vagina after development.
• The ova, larger than sperm, are formed by the time a female baby is born.
• Oogenesis matures one ovum monthly that travels down the fallopian tube.
• Unfertilized eggs are flushed out via menstruation.
• Inner reproductive organs include the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, cervix, and ovary.
• External components are the mons pubis, pudendal cleft, labia majora/minora, Bartholin's glands, and clitoris.

Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development

• Fertilization and early development is well-regulated where a zygote grows into a multicellular organism.
• These early stages are important for body health.

Gamete Fusion

• Fertilization is the fusion of gametes (egg and sperm) to form a zygote.
• One sperm unites with one egg to ensure a full diploid set of chromosomes.
• The zona pellucida, an extracellular matrix of glycoproteins, protects the egg in placental mammals.
• Acrosomal reactions are biochemical processes when sperm binds to the zona pellucida of placental mammals.
• The acrosome creates digestive enzymes that degrade the zona pellucida and allow membrane fusion
• The egg releases membrane proteins to prevent multiple sperm from fusing which prevents polyspermia.
• Polyspermic embryos are genetically unviable and die.

Cleavage and Blastula

• The growth of multicellular species begins with a single-celled zygote that divides rapidly (cleavage) to produce a blastula.
• A blastula contains over 100 cells. A blastula consists of a spherical layer of cells around a yolk-filled cavity (blastocoel).
• Mammals form a blastocyst, with an inner cell mass differing from the blastula.
• During cleavage, cells divide without increasing mass.
• Each cell in the blastula is called a blastomere.

Gastrulation

• The gastrulation process rearranges blastula cells into three layers.
• The blastula folds to form three cell layers: the endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm where each leads into organ systems.
• The ectoderm forms the epidermis and nervous system.
• The mesoderm produces muscles and connective tissue.
• The endoderm gives rise to the digestive system plus columnar cells and internal organs.

Organogenesis

• Organs form from germ layers through differentiation.
• Embryonic stem cells express gene sets that determine their type of cell where genes unique to skin cells will only be expressed by ectoderm cells.
• Neural system development is important during organogenesis in vertebrates.
• The ectoderm forms epithelial, neural cells and tissues.
• Growth factors signal ectoderm edge cells to become epidermis cells through neural plate creation.
• If growth factors block signaling, the ectoderm differentiates into neural tissue.
• The neural plate forms the neural tube which develops into the brain and spinal cord.
• The mesoderm near the neural tube develops connective tissues, which becomes somites, that will grow into muscles of the ribs, lungs, and spine.

Nutrition

• Nutrition is how food is taken in and converted into energy/nutrients for life.
• The two types of nutrition are autotrophic and heterotrophic.

Autotrophic Nutrition

• Autotrophs make their own food using inorganic materials (water, carbon dioxide) in the presence of light and chlorophyll.
• Photosynthesis is used by autotrophs to transform light energy into glucose.
• Plants, algae, and cyanobacteria are examples of autotrophs.

Heterotrophic Nutrition

• Heterotrophs eats and relies on other sources since they cannot make their own food.
• Fungi, animals, as well as humans are heterotrophs.
• Herbivores eat plants, carnivores eat animals, and omnivores eat both.

Nutrition in Plants

• Plant cells need nutrients to sustain life with compounds made of organic or inorganic substances.
• Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is an organic compound.
• Minerals, such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), are inorganic substances needed for plant structure and regulation.
• Plants need light, water, and 20 elements (essential nutrients) to support biochemical activities.
• Nutrient deficiencies can affect plant growth, causing stunted development, slow growth, or chlorosis. The macronutrients are the most important.
• Plants absorb nutrients and water through roots and carbon dioxide from the air.
• Sunlight, soil nutrients, water, and carbon dioxide enable plant growth.
• Roots provide vascular plants with the ability to anchor down to the ground, absorb minerals, nutrients, and water from the soil. Roots also store food.
• Some plants have aerial roots, that rise above the ground.

Nutrition in Animals

• Animals acquire nutrition in multiple steps with digestion, absorption, and elimination following ingestion.
• Ingestion is the first step in animals, while digestion converts food into organic fragments.
• Teeth, saliva, and the tongue perform chewing in vertebrates to prepare bolus.
• While chewing, saliva enzymes begin chemical and/or mechanical processing of food.
• Macromolecules must be broken down into smaller ones for absorption into the digestive system.
• Nutritious animal diets include carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins, and inorganic components.

Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrate is digested in the mouth where salivary amylase breaks down food starches and maltose.
• Carbohydrate digestion occurs in the Duodenum and interacts with fluids from other organs.
• Disaccharides requires maltases, sucrases, and lactases to break down.
• Lactose breaks down galactose and glucose from lactose.
• Monosaccharides (glucose) is absorbed to harness energy for metabolism and flows to the body cells.

Proteins

• Protein digestion begins in the stomach via pepsin for peptides and breaks intact proteins into short chains of amino acids.
• Many enzymes such as trypsin, elastase, and chymotrypsin act on the peptides in the duodenum, reducing them to smaller peptides.
• Peptidases helps in the breakdown of peptides to single amino acids which are ingested into the tiny intestines which then flow to the bloodstream.

Lipids

• Lipids digest in the stomach which occurs in the small intestine via pancreatic lipase and with lingual and gastric lipase.
• Hormonal responses trigger bile release where it is formed/stored in the liver/gallbladder, when chyme reaches the duodenum.
• Bile emulsifies big lipid globules into tiny ones and contains amphipathic bile salts (hydrophobic and philic).
• Pancreatic lipases then digest lipids for glycerides and fatty acids.

Vitamins

• Vitamins can be soluble in water or lipids.
• Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed like fats.
• Consuming dietary lipid is essential for processing fat-soluble vitamins.
• Dietary lipids are not needed for water-soluble vitamins.
• Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed directly into the bloodstream from the intestine.

Elimination

• The undigested food and waste products stage of digestion is elimination.
• Undigested food goes to the large intestine where the water is reabsorbed.
• Peristaltic muscles transports semi-solid waste which activates the release of waste via motions of rectum and removed via the anus.

Gas Exchange

• Gas exchange is important because it keeps organisms alive.
• Carbon dioxide releases wastes, while plants convert photosynthesis to produce oxygen, used by plants and animals in respiration.
• Gas exchange causes presence of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide.

Plant Gas Exchange

• Plants exchange the gasses with the atmosphere.
• While aquatic plants uses water, terrestrial plants uses air via moisture that flows within the cells.
• Oxygen releases from Photosynthesis and the carbon dioxide goes to the leaves.
• Gases goes to the Stomata (pore) and Stomata occurs from the epidermis.
• Large amount of Stomata opens in the day due to photosynthesis. The Stomata is due to the body.

Animal Gas Exchange

• Animals diffuse with the oxygen and carbon dioxide gas.
• The enviornment and blood exchanges gas with mammals.
• Worms transfer oxygen and the dioxide via red pigment.
• Arthropods has an opening and the surface known as spiracles.
• Fishes externalizes the extensions known as gas exchange of the gills and the gills is supplied by tissue flaps and blood.
• Terrestrial Vertebrates lungs include the Reptiles, Mammals, Birds etc.

Human Respiratory System

• Contractile Muscules are the Diaphragm and what you breath is Oxygen.
• Gas exchange occurs within the Alveoli and is contained in the lungs.
• Molecular Levels flow and is permamble.
• Air flows from high pressure to low.
• Repiratory provides oxygen and balance.
• Respiratoy system is where people defect order.
• Mouth is where air pulls from respiratory system.
• Sinuses helps temperature.
• Inhalation occurs nose and mouth.
• Contained in the Alveoli
• Traps of dirt and germs

Respiratory System Parts

• Pharynx (throat): Tube that delivers air from your mouth and nose towards the Trachea (windpipe).
• Trachea is how you connect lungs and throat.
• Bronchial Tubes flows to the Windpipe and flows lungs.
• Lungs has two organs (remove oxygen and blood)
• Diaphragm is a muscule(Pull air and push out)
• Ribs ( Protect lungs an heart)
• Aveoli happens oxygen/dioxide
• Pleura protects lungs
• Mucus traps debris and fluids
• Epiglottis is a tissue and traps liquids and fluids
• Larynx produces sounds

Flow

1. Nose
2. Pharynx
3. Larynx
4. Tracheae
5. Bronchi
6. Bronchioles
7. Alveoli

Transport and Circulation

• Human and Circulatory is the Heart,blood vessels and blood.
• Oxygen moves to lungs to body cells.

Diffusion

• Diffusion transports minerals and flow.
• Blood transports Hormones and dioxides.
• Platelets from clots.

The Xylem

• The Xylem (Water and tissue).
• Transports the raw materials for photosynthesis use.

Phloem has four.

• Sugar form for light and energy.

• Translocation is transports system.

• Living Cells ( function)

• Transports tissues and are organized into vascular bundles.

• Roots anchors into the ground and gets minerials from soil

• They provide osmosis and high cortex for water content.

Animals: Humans

• 4.7 and 5.6 liters of blood for human circulation.
• Plamsa and blood cells is protection.
• Pumps Blood to Arteries/ Veins and cardiovascular for systems.
• Arteries carries blood, while veins has oxygen.

Open

• Bloods transports bodies and elminates bloodstream
• Muscles (lack)

Closed

• Blood vessels

System

• Trunk and smaller vessels/capillary network.
• Lungs heart pumps blood
• Dioxide, Arteries pump lungs, Pulmonary Vein flows atrium.
• Artery is the aorta.

Structures

• Stoma: Leaf for gas
• Earthworm. Skin.
• Spiracles arthropod Entry
• Low photosynthesis reduced carbpm
• Alveous Lungs gas
• Cilia Filters Air
• Epiglottis prevents choked
• Root hairs increase plants
• Heart exchange