Unit 9

Moral Judgment

• Morality of an action is not always clear; it is partly based on thinking, intentions, and goals behind the action.
• Reasoning is critical in determining if a behavior is moral or immoral.
• Moral reasoning changes form the basis of moral development.

Piaget's Theory of Moral Judgment

• Defined two stages in children's moral reasoning, detailed in "The Moral Judgment of the Child" (1932/1965).

Heteronomous Morality

• Occurs between ages 4-7.
• Rules and duties are unchangeable due to social and cognitive influence.
• There is a rigid acceptance of authorities' rules during this stage.

Transition Period

• Occurs between ages 7-10.

Autonomous Morality

• Begins at ages 10+.
• Blind obedience to authority is no longer accepted as the basis for moral decisions.
• Rules are understood to be products of social agreement and can be changed by majority agreement.
• Fairness and equality are considered in rule construction, along with individual motives and intentions.

Contributions of Piaget's Theory

• Highlighted systematic changes in moral reasoning during development.
• Showed the role of cognitive development in moral reasoning.

Criticisms of Piaget's Theory

• The theory has faced overall rejection
• Underestimated young children's capacity to understand intentionality in morality.
• Children disbelieve that some adult-condoned actions are always right.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning

• Features preconventional, conventional, and postconventional levels of moral reasoning.

Preconventional Level

• Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation occurs
• Stage 2 features Instrumental and Exchange Orientation

Conventional Level

• Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity Orientation occurs
• Stage 4 is when one orients to Social System and Conscience

Postconventional Level

• Stage 5: Social Contract or Individual Rights Orientation
• Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

Contributions of Kohlberg's Theory

• Highlighted systematic changes in moral reasoning during development.
• Demonstrated that cognitive processes contribute to moral behavior.

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory

• Insufficient distinction between moral issues and social convention exists.
• Moral reasoning may not be continuous.
• Also has cultural and gender differences
• Gilligan's Theory notes that males and females reason morally differently due to socialization.

Social Domain Theory

• Moral reasoning develops gradually through social interactions and parental guidance.

Key Aspects of Social Domain Theory

• Growth occurs through social interactions and bidirectional influences
• Parents transmit values explicitly through teaching/discipline and implicitly by example.
• Peer relationships involve equal power, more agency in moral situations, and observation/initiation of moral behaviors.

Three Domains of Social Domain Theory

• The moral domain concerns right and wrong, fairness, and justice.
• The societal domain involves rules and conventions.
• The personal domain includes individual preferences.

Studying Moral Understanding in Preschoolers

• Can be done via stories
• "Is it okay, a little bit bad, or very bad for Mattie to tease Sam?", and "Should Mattie get in trouble?" are good questions
• " Is it okay, a little bit bad, or very bad for Sam to go under the table?, "Why is it a little bit bad or very bad for Sam to go under the table?" are good questions

Cultural and Socioeconomic Similarities and Differences

• Culture shapes social judgment.
• Meeting others' needs is viewed a moral duty.
• Lower SES children may struggle more between moral and social-conventional actions than middle-class children.

The Development of Conscience

• Conscience is an integral mechanism that increases an individual's ability to conform to conduct standards accepted in their culture.
• Conscience promotes prosocial behavior and compliance with adult rules and standards.
• It also restrains antisocial behavior or destructive impulses.

Conscience as Innate?

• Historically, it was deemed completely learned nurture.
• Innate drive to actions that help others are valued over ones that hinder, based on recent studies.
• Early signs of moral sense occur before taught by parents
• An innate preference for prosocial behavior may be inherent.

Development of Conscience

• Conscience develops slowly
• By age 2; moral standards are recognized and guilt exhibited when they are violated.
• With age, children take on their parents' moral values.
• Fearless children show less guilt than fearful children, even with gentle discipline.

Prosocial Behavior

• It is voluntary behavior intended to benefit another.
• Including helping, sharing with, and comforting others.
• Empathy is an emotional response to another's state or condition that reflects other person's state or condition.
• Sympathy is a feeling of concern for another.

Developmental Timeline of Prosocial Behavior

• By 14 months, infants are distressed when others are seen in distress and exhibit cooperation driven by sympathy and fairness.
• By 18-25 months, sharing is demonstrated.
• By 2-4 years, other prosocial behaviors increase.
• During middle childhood and adolescence, moral reasoning and perspective-taking influence helping, sharing, and donating.

Cooperation

• Defined as is another form of prosocial behavior.
• It is driven by sympathy and child's sense of fairness.

Individual Differences in Prosocial Behavior

• Biological factors encompass a biological (evolutionary) predisposition for prosocial behavior.
• It is necessary for the survival of species.
• Identical twins are more alike in prosocial behavior than fraternal twins, because of genetic factors
• Temperament contributes to individual differences in social cognition.

Socialization of Prosocial Behavior by Parents

• Achieved through modeling and teaching prosocial behavior.
• Arranging opportunities for their children to engage in prosocial behavior.
• Disciplining children and eliciting prosocial behavior from them further reinforces it.

Importance of Peer Influences

• Moral principles like fairness, justice, conflict resolution, and reciprocity are practiced with peers.

Effective Interventions

• Exposure to prosocial values and behaviors is important.
• Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) should be emplaced.

Antisocial Behavior

• Disruptive, hostile, or aggressive actions that violate social norms.
• These behaviors harm or take advantage of others.
• Aggression is behavior aimed at harming or injuring others.
• Instrumental aggression is motivated by obtaining a concrete goal.
• Relational aggression intends to harm others by damaging peer relationships and can lead to conduct disorder.

Development of Antisocial Behaviors

• At 12 months, aggressive behavior is show over objects without bodily contact.
• At 18 months, behavior is normative and goal-directed.
• In elementary school, overt physical aggression is low or declines, while in mid-adolescence, serious violent acts increase.

Individual Differences in Aggression

• Differences are found in aggression between girls and boys.
• Aggression in middle childhood and adolescence are especially present in boys.
• Relational aggression may also lead to conduct disorders in girls.
• Early life neurological deficits also play a role

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

• Disorder characterized by age-inappropriate, persistent displays of angry, defiant, and irritable behaviors.

Conduct Disorder (CD)

• Disorder involving severe antisocial and aggressive behaviors causing pain to others.

Origins of Aggression: Biological Factors

• Genetic factors account for frequency and stability of physical aggression, especially in preschool years.
• Heredity has a role, by having a strong role in aggression during early childhood and adulthood.
• This contributes to proactive and reactive aggression as well.
• Difficult temperament and a lack of self-regulation are linked to aggression.

Origins of Aggression: Social Cognition

• Aggressive children interpret the world through an "aggressive" lens.
• Reactive aggression causes children to be prone to hostile emotions towards others.
• Proactive aggression is aimed at fulfilling a need or desire, when anticipating more positive social consequences of aggression.

Origins of Aggression: Family Influences

• A familial link can be drawn, especially with parental punitiveness, or poor parental monitoring
• Experiencing parental conflict leads to aggression.
• Socioeconomic status affects origin of aggression

Origins of Aggression: Peer Influences

• Having aggressive friends and experiencing violence are sources for aggression.
• Peer pressure can influence aggression levels.
• Cultured views on adults versus children have an effect.
• More aggression shows in less acculturated children

Interventions for Aggressive and Antisocial Children

• Individual psychotherapy
• Combination of psychotherapy and drug therapy.
• Parent education and other interventions.
• Also has Community-based programs and promoting Positive youth development.